German-Danish War of 1864 But Mikhail Skobelev did not have the chance to wait until the end of hostilities during the suppression of the Polish uprising. Unexpectedly for himself, in the spring of 1864, he was recalled to St. Petersburg and summoned to the General Staff, where he received an order as a private citizen

The situation before the war

Shortly after the end of the Prussian-Danish War of 1848-51, the great powers approved, according to the London Protocol on May 8, 1852, the order of further succession to the throne in Denmark in the event of the death of King Fredrick VII of Denmark, the last member of the ruling Danish house in the male line, who had the right of succession in duchies of Schleswig and Holstein.

During the last years of his reign, adherents of the dominant party in the country, “Denmark to the River Eider,” issued a number of laws that sought to bring the Duchy of Schleswig into closer connection with the Danish state. As a result, their activities led to the fact that at the end of 1863 the German Confederation decided to intervene in this matter, and when Denmark refused to repeal the new fundamental law issued on November 18th, according to which Schleswig was an integral part of the Danish state and thereby separated from Holstein, then at the end of November the troops of the German Confederation, Saxons and Hanoverians, entered the borders of Holstein.

Soon after this, both great powers of the alliance, Prussia and Austria, decided to occupy Schleswig as well.

This was the beginning of the all-German policy of the Prussian Minister-President von Bismarck.

On February 1, the allied forces occupied Schleswig; from here one can consider the beginning of a strong political revival in Germany.

After a series of battles in the south, at Missunde and Eversee, the Danes cleared, outnumbered by the strongest enemy, their strong position - Düppel, in Schleswig. On the mainland, they retained only Jutland north of the Limfjord and the position at Fredericia against the northwestern tip of Funen, the strong fortifications of Düppel-Sonderburg on the Zundevit peninsula and the southwestern part of the island of Alsen.

In mid-March, several companies of Prussian infantry occupied the island of Fehmarn in a surprise attack, despite the fact that it had three Danish gunboats.

Despite a number of diplomatic demarches, the Allies subsequently occupied all of Jutland to Skagen; In general, the war on the mainland in its entire course of events strongly resembled the war of 1658. Further Allied operations, excluding actions against Fredericia and Düppel, were hopeless, since the Danish fleet was certainly in control of the situation.

The Danish fleet went through the same stages of development as the fleets of other powers (screw ships and ironclads), and consisted in 1864, in addition to fifty rowing ships with 80 guns and 24 tug steamers for them, of the following ships: one 14-gun ironclad frigate (rebuilt from a sailing battleship), one armored battery with 4 guns in domed towers - “Rolf Krake”, two armored gunboats (3 guns), one 64-gun screw battleship, 4 screw frigates (34-44 guns) , 3 screw corvettes (12-16 guns), 10 screw schooners or gunboats (2-3 guns) and 8 wheeled advice (2-8 guns); in addition, there were 2 more sailing battleships, a frigate, a corvette and a brig (14-84 guns).

The reserves consisted of 170 officers and cadets, and 1,800 lower ranks; this number of people was enough to staff all the ships.

Copenhagen's fortifications on the sea front were strengthened; the Trekroner and Prevesteen forts received casemated ramparts. A new fort, Melum, was built between both sea forts.

The funds for all these buildings were taken from the sums contributed by all states in 1857 in the amount of 35 million marks when the previous duty for passage through the Sound was abolished.

In late autumn 1864, Denmark began arming its ships.

After the dissolution of the German Confederation fleet in 1852, the small Prussian fleet was strengthened by the acquisition of some of its vessels; then the construction of ships began in Danzig, and in 1855 Prussia exchanged from England for two wheeled advice ships built there for it, one frigate and two brigs.

At the end of 1853, the Admiralty was created and Prince Adalbert of Prussia was appointed “admiral of the Prussian coast and chief commander of the fleet.” A shipyard and naval base were founded in Danzig. Warehouses for the fleet were set up in Stralsund and on the island of Denholm.

In 1854, Prince Adalbert submitted an official memorandum in which he demanded that the fleet be brought to the following composition: 9 screw battleships (90 guns), 3 screw frigates (40 guns), 6 screw corvettes (24 guns) and 3 steam memos, not counting existing sailing and 40 rowing ships.

The leadership consisted of the headquarters of the Chief of the Fleet (Ober-Kommando) and the Navy Ministry, headed by the Minister of War, General von Roon.

Swedish, Dutch, Belgian officers and officers of the former allied fleet began to enter Prussian service. In 1864, there were already 120 officers and cadets on the fleet lists.

In 1864, the Prussian fleet consisted of the following ships: 3 screw corvettes with a closed battery (28 guns), 1 corvette with an open battery (17 guns), 21 screw gunboats (2-3 guns), 1 screw melee, the royal yacht Grille (2 guns), 2 wheeled advice (2-4 guns), and in addition, 3 sailing frigates and brigs and 36 rowing ships.

At the end of 1863, all ships were transferred from Danzig to Swinemünde near Stralsund.

It should be especially noted that already in 1853 such a continental and military-land power as Prussia, bordering only on its outskirts with the Baltic Sea, began to take steps to acquire a section of coast on the North Sea for the construction of a military port, although its fleet was still in the most rudimentary state. This decision, taken despite the already large expenditures on the army, is a brilliant act of strategic and commercial-political foresight and a patriotic cause for the future of all Germany at sea. At the same time, one should not lose sight of the fact that in 1850 German trade in the Baltic Sea was more developed than in the North Sea (58% and 42%), and that the largest of the German states lying along the coast of the North Sea, Hanover, was very restrained and rather even hostile towards Prussia's naval undertakings, because it itself dreamed of control over Germany's access to the North Sea.

In the autumn of 1854, Prussia acquired from Oldenburg a section of coastline at the western entrance to the inner bay of Jade, near the town of Heppens, and immediately began to carry out a huge hydraulic engineering task - excavation work, etc.

Thus, a new naval base for Prussia (and subsequently Germany) arose in the North Sea to protect the neighboring Hanseatic cities of Hamburg and Bremen, far from its own state, unprotected by the still too small Prussian fleet - in a sense, a forgotten post.

Which was largely German. The problem of the duchies has long been a “pain point” of the “German question”. The authoritative liberal of the German North, Friedrich Christoph Dahlmann, began making plans back in 1815 to attract the duchies into the German one. During the German Revolution of 1848-1849, the Schleswig-Holstein issue was relevant, and attempts were made to resolve it. Prussia and other German states sent troops to Schleswig, military operations were successful, they were supported by Frankfurt (see Danish-Prussian War 1848-1850). But Great Britain and Sweden, with the support of Russia, did everything to prevent the duchies from being annexed to Germany. The result was the signing of a truce, which restored the status quo. The reason for a new aggravation of the Schleswig-Holstein question was the introduction in March 1863 by the Danish king Frederick VII of a constitution in all the lands under his control. Thus, the traditional privileges of Schleswig were eliminated and the rights of Holstein and Lauenburg were significantly curtailed. In Germany they feared that the Danish wanted to assimilate the German minority, which at that time constituted a third of the total population of the Danish kingdom, and protested. On November 15, 1863, the Danish died unexpectedly; the Holstein authorities refused to swear allegiance to the new king Christian IX. Christian of Glucksburg was not a direct descendant of Frederick VII (he was just the husband of his cousin), so he turned to the German Diet with a request to recognize Frederick of Augustenburg as Duke of the independent state of Schleswig. The resolution of the issue in the Federal Diet depended on the position of Austria and the Minister-President of Prussia O. von Bismarck. But Austria no longer had its former influence in the German world, and Bismarck had other plans for Schleswig and Holstein: he did not want to go to war with Denmark for the emergence of a new independent state and was inclined to annex the territory of the duchies. As a diplomat, Bismarck did not consider it possible to violate the Treaty of London signed by Prussia and Austria in 1852, which recognized the rights of the Danish Christian Christian of Glucksburg and denied them in relation to the Duke of Augustenburg. Austria and Prussia have officially stated that they do not intend to violate the London Treaty. The Hohenzollerns and Habsburgs presented a united front. Through the efforts of Bismarck, the Federal Diet decided to deprive Christian IX of power over the German-speaking duchies, and the majority of small German states supported the Duke of Augustenburg. In December, Saxon and Hanoverian troops approached the Holstein border. Prussian and Austrian troops stood on the Elbe. The Minister-President of Prussia acted cautiously and pragmatically. He made it clear to Napoleon III that he was ready to discuss the problem of Schleswig and Holstein at an international conference and thank France for its support. Bismarck officially proposed that Austria enter into an alliance and include in the alliance clause that if it leads to war, then the fate of the duchies of Prussia and Austria will be decided together. He was supported by the Austrian Foreign Minister Rechberg. was signed on January 16, 1864, at the same time Prussia and Austria demanded that Christian IX abolish the constitution in Schleswig, but he refused. At the end of January 1864, Prussian troops entered. On February 1, Austro-Prussian troops (about 60 thousand people) under the command of Prussian Field Marshal F. Wrangel invaded Schleswig. By mid-April, the entire Danish mainland was already in their hands. On April 18, 1864, Prussian attacks destroyed the Danish fortifications at Dubbel. This was the largest battle of D. in. On April 29, Prussian-Austrian troops reached Fredericia, the Danish had to evacuate to the islands of Als and Funen. At sea, military operations initially developed in favor of the Danes. On March 17 they won a victory at Fr. Rügen, and on May 9 - at Fr. Helgoland. But after the retreat of the Danish army to the islands of Als and Funen, the enemy fleet concentrated near these islands and captured the North Frisian Islands (near the western coast of the Jutland Peninsula). The European powers did not provide support to the Danes. Continental Europe did not want to spoil relations with Bismarck because of Denmark, and Great Britain could not do anything on its own. But on her initiative, a conference was convened in London, at which representatives of Austria and Prussia spoke out for the autonomy of Schleswig and Holstein while maintaining dynastic ties with Denmark. Danish did not support this decision. Then the Austro-Prussian troops resumed on the Jutland Peninsula. The Danish proposed a conclusion, the terms of which provided for the transfer of Schleswig and Holstein to Austria and Prussia. A ceasefire regime was in effect from May 12 to June 26. Then the Prussian troops moved to, captured about. Als, and by mid-July they occupied the entire territory of Jutland. On July 16, a new agreement was signed. On August 1, 1864, a preliminary peace treaty was signed, and on October 30, in Vienna, a final peace treaty was signed, according to which the rights to Schleswig and Lauenburg were renounced in favor of Prussia and Austria. The duchies ceased to be the object of an international settlement; their fate was now in the hands of Berlin and Vienna. D.v. became the first in a series of Prussian military campaigns for the unification of Germany. Source: Bismarck O. von. Memoirs of the Iron Chancellor. St. Petersburg, 2004. Lit.: Roots L. The Schleswig-Holstein question and the European powers in 1863-1864. Tallinn, 1957; Narochnitskaya L. I. Russia and the wars of Prussia in the 60s of the XIX century. for the unification of Germany "from above". M., 1960; Rostislavleva N.V. The Schleswig-Holstein question in the focus of the creation of the German Empire // Regional narrative of the imperial province: methodological approaches and research practices. Stavropol, 2016; Showalter D. E. The Wars of German Unification. London, 2004. N. V. Rostislavleva.

Plan
Introduction
1 Cause of war
2 Progress of hostilities
3 Results and results

Bibliography
Danish War (1864)

Introduction

The Danish War of 1864 (Danish-Prussian War, Second War of Schleswig, War of the Duchies) was a military conflict between the Kingdom of Denmark and the Prussian-Austrian coalition for the separation of the Elbe duchies of Schleswig and Holstein from the possessions of the Danish crown. It is considered the first of the wars in the process of unifying Germany around Prussia.

1. Cause of the war

In the mid-19th century, rivalry arose between Denmark and Prussia over the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, which were in a personal union with Denmark. In 1848, a war began that lasted until 1850 (see Danish-Prussian War 1848-1850). After its end, the previous status of the duchies was confirmed by the London Protocols of 1850 and 1852. But in November 1863, Denmark adopted a new constitution, according to which Schleswig joined the Kingdom of Denmark. Austria and Prussia, with the support of a number of states of the German Confederation, considered this step a violation of previous agreements. They demanded that Denmark abolish the constitution and occupied Holstein, as well as the German principality of Lauenburg, which Denmark claimed. And on January 16, Austria and Prussia announced an ultimatum to Denmark demanding the restoration of the status of Schleswig. At the end of January, Denmark rejected the ultimatum.

2. Progress of hostilities

On February 1, combined Prussian-Austrian troops numbering 60 thousand people, supported by 158 guns (the Allied army was subsequently increased), under the overall command of Prussian Field Marshal F. Wrangel, entered the territory of Schleswig. By March 1864, the Danish army (38 thousand people, 277 guns) under the command of Lieutenant General K. de Metz retreated through Flensburg to fortified positions in the area of ​​​​the city of Dubbel. The other part of the Danish army retreated to the north of Jutland, where it settled in the Fredericia fortress. In March, Prussian-Austrian troops besieged the fortress, and on April 18 they defeated the Danes at Dubbel. On April 29, Danish troops were forced to leave Fredericia and evacuate to the islands of Als and Funen. At sea in the first period of the war, the stronger Danish fleet dominated, blockading the German coast. The naval battles of the Danes with the Prussian squadron at Jasmund (Rügen Island) on March 17 and with the Austrian squadron at Heligoland on May 9 did not give a definite result; both belligerents declared them their victories.

On April 25, 1864, peace negotiations began in London between the representatives of the warring states with the participation of Great Britain, France and Russia. A truce was concluded until June 26. On June 29, Prussian-Austrian troops resumed their offensive and by mid-July occupied all of Jutland.

3. Outcomes and results

Only by the end of October 1864 was the conflict completely resolved, and on October 30 a peace treaty was signed in Vienna. Denmark renounced its claims to Lauenburg, Schleswig and Holstein. The duchies were declared joint possessions of Prussia and Austria, with Schleswig now ruled by Prussia and Holstein by Austria. This war was an important step towards the unification of Germany under Prussian hegemony.

Information taken from the following books:

· Urlanis B. Ts. Wars and population of Europe. - Moscow., 1960.

Bodart G. Loss of life in modern wars. Austria-Hungary; France. - London., 1916.

Bibliography:

1. The size of the army in wartime is indicated. Of these, 40,500 were infantry, 4,900 cavalry, 5,600 artillerymen and 700 engineers.

2. In the Danish army, 812 people were missing, whom official Danish sources count as killed.

Danish-German wars 1848-1850 and 1864 - conflicts between Denmark and the German states over the duchies of Schleswig-Holstein and Lauenburg, which were under the rule of the Danish crown.

With the rise of nationalism in both Denmark and Germany, these duchies became a matter of conflict. If the Danes wanted to annex Schleswig, where part of the population spoke Danish, to Denmark, then the Germans wanted to annex the duchies to Germany.

The situation was complicated by uncertainty in dynastic matters, since different laws of succession were in force in all parts of the domain, and the Danish king Frederick VII had no heirs. During the Danish Revolution of 1848, the duchies rebelled under the leadership of the middle line of the Oldenburg-Augustenburg dynasty and were supported by Prussia and other German states. Denmark was supported by Sweden and Norway. Russia provided diplomatic support to the Danes. The first war began, which went on with varying degrees of success. In the end, with diplomatic assistance from Russia and Great Britain, the war was stopped, but the problem was not solved.

According to the protocol signed in London in 1850, the throne was to pass to the younger branch of the Oldenburg dynasty - the Glucksburgs. The death of the Danish king Frederick VII in 1863 and the simultaneous adoption of a new constitution common to Denmark and Schleswig caused a new war, the main participants of which were Prussia and Austria. The Danish troops were defeated, and under the Peace of Vienna, Denmark was forced to renounce the duchies, which went to Germany.