Derivation (from the Latin derivatio - diversion, formation) is the concept of formal, semantic and functional derivation and hierarchy of units at all levels of the language system, accepted in structural linguistics and the theory of speech activity, as well as the concept of inter-level relations; For example: snow- snowball(phonetic derivation at the morphonological level); declare- announcement(word-formation derivation); bear - bear(about a person) (lexical derivation); Winter has come - Winter has come(expressive word order) (syntactic derivation). The science of derivatology deals with the calculation of derivational processes, or relationships, the foundations of which were laid in the works of M.V. Lomonosov, A. A. Barsov, N. I. Grech, F. I. Buslaev, S. O. Kartsevsky. The term “derivation” was introduced by E. Kurilovich in the 30s. XX century

A derivational unit, or derivational step, in a synchronous language system is the process of transforming a linguistic unit, taken as the original (elementary), using a means existing in the language (the derivation operator); for example, noun forest is the initial unit for word formation forester using a suffix -Nick and zero inflection. A new word (derivative) has new word-formation and lexical meanings that cannot be reduced to the sum of its components.

Derivation, being a theoretical and methodological construct, allows us to explain the system of linguistic relations, the development of language as a continuous process of signification, and shows ways of its creative use. Derivational processes determine all paradigmatic and syntagmatic connections of a language, but traditionally it is customary to calculate them according to the levels of language, to distinguish:

· morphonological derivation (for example, age-crippled);

· inflectional (for example, play - play);

· word-formation (for example, 6lick - to 6lick);

· lexical ( icy - icy - about the look);

· syntactic ( The sun scorched the grass - The sun scorched the grass);

· semantic, manifested at the text level.

Derivation is a unidirectional process, but its direction is not always obvious. The higher the level of the language system, the more characteristics of the analyzed unit should be involved; for example, to determine the development of verbal polysemy, the distinction between primary and secondary meanings, it is necessary to explore the paradigmatic relationships of sentence models organized by these verbs, to find out possible ways of filling syntactic positions. At the level of sentence models, the direction of transformation is determined based on the analysis of the semantic-syntactic structure of sentences, and the meaning of the original sentence must be a periphrase when establishing the meaning of the derived sentence. This rule is mandatory for determining the direction of intra-model and inter-model derivation of sentences. An example of intra-model derivation can be indefinite-personal sentences, passive, resultative and relative constructions. Inter-model derivational relations can be illustrated by the operations of causation and decausation, for example. He told the truth(non-causative construction: the action of the subject is not caused by the action of another subject or subjects) - He was forced to tell the truth(causative construction: the action of the subject is forced, conditioned from the outside). The increase in linear extension and the new meaning of the sentence are provided here by the causation operator, which can conventionally be called “positive”; the operator with the “minus” sign carries out the process of decausation; eg Children surrounded the garden with a fence - Children surrounded the garden (house, table, teacher and so on.). The productivity of the second model is shown by the semantics of the subject: in the second construction, the function of the subject can only be performed by an animate noun in plural. This specification compensates for the absence of a means of influence in the sentence of a syntactic position.

The range of syntactic derivational processes is not clearly defined. In addition to compression phenomena (for example, the emergence of the phrase irrigated agriculture), contamination (e.g. colloquial pay for travel) conversion, transformation, periphrasis; derivation includes all types of complications of the grammatical structure of a sentence, changes in the characteristics of the logical-syntactic and communicative plan. So, for example, the proposal The stability of traditions distinguishes all Eastern culture at the beginning of the paragraph, the word order is expressive or determined by the textual connection of the construction: the verb-predicate has the meaning of a relationship and predetermines the syntactic positions of the subject-carrier of the attribute ("Eastern culture") and feature specifications (“sustainability of tradition”). In accordance with this initial member of the derivation there must be a construction The entire Eastern culture is distinguished by the stability of traditions, it is the most elementary, has an isomorphic structure and is independent of context.

The central issue in derivatology is the concept of regularity. As a rule, the regularity of derivational processes depends on the ontological properties of the original unit, the derivational power of the operator and the type of derivation.

With the help of derivation, they explain not only the complex hierarchically organized units of the synchronous system of language and speech, but also establish the processes of language development in diachrony. For example, it has been established that causative verbs of locally directed action (clog the opening with plywood) for the most part, with the exception of gla-heads cover and fill formed from non-causative verbs of different lexical-semantic groups with the conditional general name “verbs of a specific physical action”. First, verbs of the perfect form were formed by a prefixal method, and then by a secondary imperfective method - imperfect form, For example: 6it - 6it - 6it; sculpt - stick around - mold (ham with dough); smoke - smoke - smoke (trees with smoke). The primacy of sentence models is established; for example, the “active subject + active verb” model is primary in relation to the “inactive subject + active verb” sentence model: A man walks - an ax chops.

The calculus of derivational relations in synchrony and diachrony in the language system and in speech production is an important tool for creating a general theory of language.

Historical changes in vocabulary can occur in several ways: New meanings of words appear, archaization of a number of words occurs, old meanings are lost and new ones appear, etc. In addition to these processes in the vocabulary, words transition from the active to the passive vocabulary and vice versa.

Active vocabulary - This is part of the vocabulary of a language, including words, actively used in all spheres of social life, it is the core of the lexical system and the face of the language as a whole.

Passive vocabulary is a part of the vocabulary of a language, including words that have limited use in everyday society. In pass. vocabulary includes words that are falling out of use, as well as those that have not yet fully entered into it.

Obsolete words are words that belong to the passive stock of the language, have fallen out of use, but are mostly understandable to native speakers. Obsolete words are divided:

Historicisms- words that have fallen out of use due to the disappearance of realities. They have no synonyms in the literary language

Archaisms– these are outdated names of existing realities. There are two types of archaisms:

Lexical are archaisms that include lexical archaisms, i.e. words that are completely outdated as defined. sound complexes (that is, that is); lexical and word-formative archaisms, i.e. obsolete in the word-formation structure (fisherman - fisherman); lexical-phonetic, i.e. differing only in a few sounds (music s ka - m at language)

Semantic - words with an outdated meaning that is unknown to an existing one modern language words (language – people).

EUPHEMISM, a stylistically neutral word or expression used instead of a synonymous linguistic unit that seems indecent, rude or tactless to the speaker; euphemisms often veil and mask the essence of a phenomenon; For example: die instead of die,tell a lie instead of lie,price liberalization instead of price increase,product(about the atomic bomb). Unlike ordinary vocabulary, euphemisms are extremely sensitive to public assessments of certain phenomena as “decent” and “indecent.” Related to this is the historical variability of the status of euphemism: what seems to be a successful euphemistic name to one generation may be regarded by subsequent generations as undoubted and unacceptable rudeness, requiring a euphemistic replacement.

In linguistics Taboo- a word whose use is prohibited (due to religious beliefs, superstitions, censorship prohibitions, fear of rude expressions, etc.), for example, among commercial hunters, instead of “bear” - “master”, “lomaka”, “he”; restriction of word use determined by the same reasons.

2) words and opinions that cannot be expressed out loud; prohibited items and actions; any strict prohibition.

31 Borrowings. Types and methods.

Borrowing is a way to enrich the vocabulary of a language. In different historical eras, the nature of borrowings, their thematic affiliation, and the intensity of penetration into the lexical fund of a particular language were different. At the same time, word formation during borrowing plays a very important role important role, since it promotes word-formation adaptation.

There are borrowings in which a word is borrowed into another language, and after some time returns back in a different phonetic form.

Calque words can also be borrowed, i.e. words that consist of material from the native language, but are built on the basis of a foreign word-formation model (pronomen - “instead of a name”). Sometimes the semantic structure of a word can be borrowed (from the French paradis - paradise).

When borrowing, phonetic and grammatical adaptation occurs. For example, the word choir comes from the Greek khoros, where the combination “kh” began to sound like “x”.

Grammatical adaptation - the word tulle has acquired gender, number, and case. But it happens that a word does not tolerate adaptation, but remains as it was borrowed.

Depending on the language from which certain words came, two types of borrowings can be distinguished: 1) related borrowings(from the Slavic family of languages) and 2) foreign language borrowings(from languages ​​of another language system). The first type includes borrowings from the related Old Church Slavonic language (sometimes called Old Bulgarian in linguistic literature). The second includes borrowings from Greek, Latin, Turkic, Scandinavian, Western European (Roman, Germanic, etc.).

In terms of the time of penetration, the borrowed vocabulary is also heterogeneous: some words in it belong to the period of the Indo-European linguistic community, others to the pan-Slavic linguistic unity, others replenished the language of the Eastern Slavs in the Old Russian period of its existence, and, finally, many words have already entered the Russian vocabulary itself.

The Russian language dictionary is constantly changing and improving in the process of its historical development. Changes in vocabulary are directly related to the economic, social, and political development of society. The vocabulary reflects all processes of the historical development of society. With the advent of new objects and phenomena, new concepts arise, and with them, words for naming these concepts. With the death of certain phenomena, the words that name them go out of use or change their meaning. Taking all this into account, the vocabulary of the national language can be divided into two large groups: active dictionary and passive dictionary.

IN active lexicon includes those everyday words whose meaning is clear to all people speaking a given language. The words of this group are devoid of any signs of obsolescence.

TO passive stock words include those that either have a pronounced connotation of obsolescence, or, conversely, due to their novelty, have not yet become widely known and are also not in everyday use.

Passive words are divided, in turn, into obsolete and new (neologisms).

Outdated vocabulary

Outdated vocabulary includes historicisms and archaisms.

Historicisms- these are words that have fallen out of use along with the objects, concepts, phenomena they denote and have passed into passive vocabulary, for example: chain mail, corvée, horse-drawn carriage; subbotnik, sunday; socialist competition, Politburo. Native speakers know these words, but do not use them in their everyday speech. Historicisms are used in texts that talk about the past (fiction, historical research).

Archaisms- these are outdated names of phenomena and concepts that exist in modern times, to denote which other, modern names have arisen.

There are several types of archaisms:

1) actual lexical archaisms: the word is completely obsolete and has completely fallen out of use: cheeks- 'cheeks', neck- 'neck', right hand- 'right hand', shuytsa- 'left hand', so that- 'to', destruction– ‘death’;

2) semantic archaisms: one of the meanings of the word has become obsolete, while the rest continue to be used in modern language: stomach- 'life', thief– ‘state criminal’ (False Dmitry II was called the “Tushinsky thief”); at the word give over the past 10 years the meaning of ‘sell’ has disappeared, and the word throw away– meaning ‘put on sale’;

3) lexico-phonetic archaisms: 1-2 sounds and/or stress location may change in a word: room- number, library- library, mirror- mirror, string– lace;

4) Lexical and word-formative archaisms: an obsolete word may differ from modern ones by a prefix and/or suffix ( friendship- friendship, restaurant- restaurant, fisherman– fisherman);

5) lexico-grammatical archaisms: a word may change individual grammatical forms(cf.: the title of A.S. Pushkin’s poem “ Gypsies» – modern form gypsies) or whether this word belongs to a certain grammatical class (words piano, hall were used as feminine nouns, but in modern Russian these are masculine words).

Word obsolescence is a process, and different words may be at different stages of it. Words that have not yet fallen out of active use, but are already used less frequently than before, are called obsolete (voucher).

Functions obsolete words are varied. Firstly, they can be used directly to name and designate corresponding objects and phenomena. Thus, outdated words are used, for example, in scientific and historical works. IN works of art on historical topics, this vocabulary is used not only to denote obsolete realities and outdated concepts, but also to create a certain flavor of the era. Obsolete words can be used in literary text to indicate the time in which the action takes place. Obsolete words (mainly archaisms) can also perform stylistic functions - they can be used to create solemnity in the text.

Neologisms

Outdated words are opposed neologisms- new words, the novelty of which is felt by the speakers.

Linguistic neologisms- these are words that appear as names for new objects, phenomena, concepts that do not yet have names in the language, or as new names for already existing objects or concepts.

Linguistic neologisms arise in the following ways:

1) a new word appears in the language, a new lexical item. It appears through borrowing ( shop tour, charter, shaping, image) or the emergence of a new word according to the word-formation models existing in the language from the “old” word ( geography® lunography) or neologism-borrowing ( marketing® marketing, computer® computer, geek, computerization);

2) a word already existing in the language acquires a new meaning, for example, kettle– ‘a non-specialist with weak skills in something’, hatch– ‘text correction paste’, round– ‘negotiation phase’, pirate– ‘unlicensed’, shell- 'garage'. In the future, this meaning can break away and form a new homonym word.

If an object, concept, phenomenon, called a neologism, quickly becomes irrelevant, the neologism may not have time to become a commonly used word, master the language, and this word may immediately go into the passive vocabulary, becoming historicism. This fate befell many neologisms during the NEP and the first years of perestroika ( cooperator, gekachepist, voucher).

Language neologisms are used by native speakers in their everyday speech and are known and understood by many. If the existence of a linguistic neologism is justified, pretty soon the neologism enters the active vocabulary and ceases to be recognized as a new word. However, the creation of new words and word creation is also possible in other situations: a literary word, a situation of friendly communication, the speech of a child who has not yet fully mastered the vocabulary of the Russian language. An adult, a poet, a writer consciously resorts to word creation in order to make his speech more expressive or to play with the rich word-forming capabilities of the language, a child does this unconsciously. The results of such word creation are called individual (contextual, author's) neologisms or occasionalisms. So, we find in A.S. Pushkin's words potted (< Гончарова), Küchelbecker (< Кюхельбеккер), у В.В. Маяковского: darling, walk hastily, turn blue, flash.

Sometimes author's neologisms become real words and enter the literary language, such as the words pendulum, pump, attraction, constellation, mine, drawing, included in the Russian language from the works of M.V. Lomonosov, industry, love, absent-mindedness, touching- from the works of N. M. Karamzin, fade away– from F.I. Dostoevsky, mediocrity- from I. Severyanin.

Vocabulary is the most mobile, changeable part of the language. It sensitively responds to all changes in external, non-linguistic reality: in the material and cultural life of society, in the social structure, in relations between people. But does this mean that the vocabulary is fluid and unstable, that the pace of change in it is parallel to the pace of social change? If this were so, then we would not understand not only Pushkin and Gogol, but also Chekhov, and even Gorky. But Pushkin wrote more than a century and a half ago. Nevertheless, “we understand everything” about what and how he said in his work.

Moreover: if we come across any text from the 18th century. or even earlier, we are able to understand something from this text. True, this understanding is sometimes deceptive, illusory: after all, some words have changed their meaning - several centuries ago their meaning was different. For example, red called what we now denote by words Beautiful, beautiful. This meaning has been preserved in epics and proverbs, in folk songs: red maiden; The hut is not red in its corners, but red in its pies- and in toponymic names: Red Village- this is a beautiful village, not a red village; Red Square meant “beautiful square.”

And yet, if in texts from two hundred years ago we compare the percentage of words that are completely incomprehensible or have different meanings with the percentage of words whose meanings are clear to our contemporaries, the ratio will clearly be in favor of the latter: there is more understandable in such texts. But a lot of time has passed, and how many events have happened in Russian reality! A historian comparing the 20th century. from the 18th century, will find much more differences than similarities - in the social structure, in the way of life, and finally, simply in the way of life of Russian people. And a linguist, making a similar comparison of centuries, will discover in the Russian language of the 20th century. and in the Russian language of the 18th century. more similarities than differences. How to explain this?

The fact is that language is conservative by nature. This is clearly seen in the names preserved in the language. For example, we continue to call a pen something that is not at all like goose feathers (with which our ancestors wrote); We call the knife a penknife, although no pens have been repaired with it for a long time. Here's a very recent fact: an electrical device that supplies hot air and is used to dry hands after washing them is called... a towel, although it doesn't look like a towel at all.

And there are many similar facts. They indicate one thing: changes in vocabulary occur more slowly than changes in the life around us. Such conservatism of the language (even its most mobile part - the dictionary) is one of its advantages: the relative stability of its means, including lexical ones, ensures mutual understanding between generations and the continuity of culture.

And yet changes in the dictionary are taking place. New things appear in life - they require a new word (see Neologisms). And vice versa, a word falls out of use if what it called ceases to exist (see Archaisms, historicisms).

Neologisms and historicisms are examples of the immediate, direct influence of changes occurring in life on the dictionary. Changes also occur in vocabulary in which this influence is indirect, mediated by other processes. For example, in the post-revolutionary era, masses of peasants began to familiarize themselves with the Russian literary language (previously they spoke only local dialects). They not only mastered a literary vocabulary that was new to them, but also introduced their own dialect words into this dictionary. So in the Russian language of the 20th century. the words appeared: troublemaker, wilderness, milkmaid, mossy, dark, hoarfrost, shady, dreary, new settler, impoverished, time off and others, which have already lost their dialectal character, have become commonly used.

Thus, the social factor - the October Revolution - influenced the change in the composition of Russian speakers literary language, and this led to innovations in the literary dictionary.

Another example. The rapid development of science and technology in the 20th century. leads to the fact that some scientific and technical terms begin to be used very widely. And not only in your own special meaning, but also figuratively, metaphorically: orbit of glory, virus of indifference, give me your coordinates(telephone or address), I'm fixated etc. This is also an enrichment of literary vocabulary - by rethinking special terms.

Changes can also occur in the dictionary that are caused by the internal development of the dictionary itself, the linguistic patterns that govern the life of words. These are, for example, natural, regularly occurring changes in the meanings of words in a language: according to the similarity of the functions of objects ( pocket, towel); by the external similarity of objects; such a change in meaning is called a metaphor: eyeball, rubber bulb, bayou; by the contiguity of objects in space; This transfer of meaning is called metonymy: Class- room and group of students, paper- material and official document, a large bucket and two buckets of potatoes in a bag and so on.

Some natural changes in the meaning of words lead to its expansion: for example, next to the meaning “action” the meaning “result of action” appears ( motion transmission - chain transmission). Other changes, on the contrary, lead to a narrowing of meaning. So, in ancient times, everything that could be drunk was called beer. Gradually, however, the meaning of this word narrowed: it began to be called only a special type of drink (see.

The vocabulary of a language changes by updating vocabulary and accumulating new means of expression. It reflects the history of changes in the life of the people and society. Comparing, for example, the lexical system of the modern Russian language with the dictionary of the ancient Russian language, we discover not only quantitative differences, but also deeper, qualitative ones. These changes are of several types:

Changes in the way things are named. Previously, in ancient times, names of objects were often given according to the characteristics of their shape, material, contiguity with other objects, etc. For example, if we turn to the etymology of Russian names for dishes, we can find out that, say, a glass is named after the material : in the old days, glasses were made from boards (originally dostokan); the bucket turns out to be cognate word water (i.e., if we coarse this connection, a bucket is a vessel for water). With the development of language, the principle of naming an object according to its function and purpose begins to prevail - and the closer to our time, the more distinct it is. The word, as it were, signals for what purpose the object it denotes serves: a switch, a vacuum cleaner, a clamp, a sound pickup, etc.

Changes in genus-specific relationships between concepts and their reflection in the dictionary. In the Old Russian language there were names table, bench, bench, chair, bed and other designations for types of furniture, but there was no word furniture itself or any other word that would unite all types of names. The need for a general name becomes urgent, and the word furniture (borrowed from French via German), which denotes a generic concept, is strengthened in the Russian language. Thus, in the Russian language, instead of isolated names, a group of words is formed, between which gender-species relationships are established.

Changing synonymous relationships between words. Increasing synonymous rows. The development of synonymy, an increase in the arsenal of synonymous means is one of the main indicators of improving the language and its expressive capabilities. The relations of doubletness and free variation are gradually being replaced by relations between words that are based on the principle of functional necessity: only such units are preserved in the language that differ from others in meaning and use. If these differences are small, then the words are combined into synonymous rows. Each word of the series, naming the same action or quality, emphasizes some special shade in it. So, in the Old Russian language the verbs po-myslyat, ruzymatit, dumati had general meaning"think"; in the language of the 18th-19th centuries. and in modern times these words, although close in meaning, have independent meanings that are realized in different contexts (compare: I didn’t even think about such success! Why think about it for a long time - you have to go! Think before you do).

Changes in lexical compatibility. With the development of language, the selectivity of a word in its combination with other words increases, thereby increasing the idiomaticity (specialness, originality) of the phrases themselves. So, for example, the verbs do, become in their figurative meanings in the language of the 19th century. combined with nouns much more widely than now. It was possible to make not only a remark or a reproach, but also, say, a question. Or they wrote, for example, “to make an impact”, “to cause panic” (compare the modern “to have an influence”, to sow or raise panic); They said not only “trouble happened,” but also “joy happened.” Thus, the mechanism of lexical compatibility becomes thinner, and the verbal means that ensure the operation of the mechanism become more diverse.

In the process of historical development of a language, expansion or narrowing of word meanings, which are constantly noted in the lexicon. In ancient times in vocabulary different nations Words whose meanings are related to the surrounding material world predominate. Then, with the development of abstract thinking, the meanings of some words acquire new meanings, and thus polysemy develops. Along with the expansion of the meaning of words, they can undergo opposite processes: due to changes in the surrounding life, some phenomena disappear or their explanation changes, therefore, some meanings of words die out and fall out of use, which leads to a narrowing of the lexical meaning. Examples:

· Defender- in Old Russian in language - one who protects, protects someone from unfavorable or harmful actions; in modern times language In the 20s of the 20th century, another meaning appeared - 1. one who protects from encroachment, attack; 2. legal The one who defends the interests of the accused in court; 3. sport. defensive player in football, hockey;

· Beer– in Old Russian: any drink; in modern times in the language – a drink made from barley malt;

· Feed– in Old Russian: any food, treat, feast, type of tax; in modern times language - animal food.