True, at that time even at the royal courts there were no tablecloths or plates. Food was placed in recesses on an oak table.

At the beginning of the Middle Ages in Europe, acorns were one of the main foodstuffs, which were eaten not only by commoners, but also by nobles.

Meat and fish in the Middle Ages were often salted. This eliminated infections and rapid spoilage of food. That’s why everyone liked the oriental spices so much: they offset the taste of corned beef.

The first person to eat a lot of meat was King Henry VIII “Bluebeard.” Before him, of course, they also ate meat, but not as the main dish. The fact is that there was simply nothing to chew meat with: almost all inhabitants of the Middle Ages had serious problems with their teeth.

Again, due to general toothlessness, the vegetables were subjected to prolonged heat treatment and pureed. Chewing on fresh carrots was out of the question.

The fish was served as a fish skin stuffed with minced fish. There was no need to chew it.

In the Middle Ages, they preferred to drink beer, since sewage and water purification systems did not exist, and water was a carrier of infections.

Bread at that time was a potential health hazard. The grain was stored in unsafe conditions and was often affected by fungal diseases.

The common people ate porridge, which at that time was so hard that it could be cut. What the porridge consisted of was unimportant.

One of the main features of the “simple” cuisine of that time was the complete absence of hot dishes. For example, French onion soup was not boiled, but the onion was simply chopped into water.

The fact is that then the common people did not have the right to cut down forests for their own needs. So, there was simply no firewood for the kitchen.

The noble medieval knights considered... lard to be the best dish in the cold season. It was eaten salted, baked, seasoned with dill and other spicy herbs.

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Beer instead of water, beavers instead of fish and a lot of cereals - that's not all distinctive features cuisines of the inhabitants of medieval Europe. Today, when the ingredients for almost any dish can be bought at the store closest to your home, and thanks to the variety of cooking methods and kitchen gadgets, everyone can feel like a chef, it’s interesting to imagine how we would behave in the Middle Ages, when modern food storage technologies did not exist. , nor the variety of ways to prepare them.

website I tried to find out the most reliable information about the medieval menu of Western Europe, which we want to introduce you to today. And at the end we will offer a recipe for a delicious medieval stew.

1. Meat

When there was no fasting, fried meat of domestic animals often ended up on the European table. Beef was the least common product, since raising cows in the Middle Ages required a lot of effort, and at that time, milk and labor from cattle were valued higher than their meat.

As a rule, pork was served at the table. However, in addition to the usual tenderloin or bacon, the dish could contain the most “unexpected” parts of the pig’s body: snout, ears, tail or even genitals.

Those born into a wealthy family or into a family of hunters often had the opportunity to cook game and rabbit, adored by medieval Europeans. It was valued not only because of its taste, but also because it was allowed to be eaten during Lent.

Most often, the meat was roasted on a spit over an open fire. Sausage could be made from the leftovers: it was prepared by stuffing the pork intestinal lining with chopped giblets, lard and meat.

2. Fish

The fish menu of those years can confuse a modern person. Medieval Europeans were indeed sure that beavers and water birds were also fish. However, this list also included species of fish quite familiar to people of the 21st century: pike, trout, herring or cod - depending on what was found in a particular area.

Before being served on the table, the fish was stored in a dried form: it was gutted, salted, hung on a pole and left in this state until it hardened. And before cooking, the fish was beaten with a hammer and soaked in water so that it did not have a “rubbery” taste.

3. Side dishes

In medieval Europe, potatoes appeared quite late and there was very little rice, since it had not been grown in these territories for a long time.

But you could treat yourself to buckwheat or pasta; the existence of the latter is confirmed, for example, by Giovanni Boccaccio’s “The Decameron.” Before serving, the pasta was boiled for a long time in boiling water, broth or milk, and then sprinkled with sugar.

Anyone who did not like these types of side dishes could supplement the food with beans. There were plenty of them throughout Europe.

4. Porridge

Porridge was prepared in any home, regardless of what class the family belonged to. It was from porridge that medieval Europeans received the largest portion of their daily calories. Porridges were cooked from any available type of grain. By the way, they were not only used for breakfast: porridge boiled in almond milk with added sugar could easily be served as a dessert.

5. Bread

Do you eat bread? And if so, which one do you prefer: white, gray or black? However, in the Middle Ages you would not have to choose, because the class would do it for you: only the rich could afford white bread made from wheat flour. Poor families were content with rye bread.

After the meal, broth, gravy and even wine could be absorbed into a piece of bread. By the way, you can prepare a separate dish from the flatbreads by boiling them in broth and sprinkling with spices.

6. Sweets

Today, caramel apples can be found both in restaurant menus and on the home table. The ancestor of this dish was a very popular dessert in medieval Europe. Only then were apples and other fruits more often watered not with syrup, but with honey. Mulled wine and small sweets made from berries in sugar were also served as desserts.

In general, in the Middle Ages, Europeans had something to sweeten their lives. A variety of sugar pancakes, pancakes, sweet spreads, custard cakes and, as we wrote above, sweetened cereals - you could choose anything from this list. If the family could not afford dishes with sugar, fruits and berries were used as sweeteners.

7. Dairy products

Despite the fact that milk was available to people of almost all classes, it was not intended for adults. It was mainly used by old people and children. Mature people could drink what was left over from the production of butter, or milk that had begun to sour. By the way, it turned sour quite often due to lack of storage options.

Instead of animal milk, almond milk could easily be used for cooking. In the Middle Ages, cheese making was well developed: Parmesan, brie, edam, and ricotta were available even to representatives of the lower classes.

8. Drinks

Trying to drink at least 8 glasses of water a day? Then you would have had a hard time in the Middle Ages. At this time, water was not popular for several reasons: it was difficult to purify, it was not recommended by doctors, and it was simply not prestigious. Many people replaced water with alcohol. This could be wine, which was more often drunk by the rich and vineyard owners, or beer, which was also available to poorer people.

Continuing our topic about the mysterious and therefore incredibly interesting Middle Ages, let's move on to the topic of food. This is no less important topic than, because if the main alcohol-containing drinks remained essentially the same - wine, beer, vodka - then the daily diet of the inhabitants of the Middle Ages could differ from our dietary preferences.

How often did people eat?

Let's start with the fact that people in the Middle Ages ate twice a day. The first, lunchtime meal was hearty, and the evening dinner consisted only of soup, which was bread soaked in wine or other liquid. However, often peasants and working people still could not wait for lunch and ate in the morning. From the 15th century, the nobility joined them, starting their mornings with bread, meat and wine. To the standard meals were added an afternoon snack (from English “nuncheons”), a small snack provided by the employer, as well as drinking times (from English “drynkyngs”) for noble people.

Two meals a day was considered the only correct one, and snacks and additional meals were criticized by both doctors and clergy for being excessively immodest.

Particularly attacked was the so-called “reresoper”, or eating after dinner, which could be accompanied by both a regular snack and what we associate parties with today: alcohol, get-togethers with friends, gambling, flirting.

What utensils were on the table?

They all ate together at one table, which often served not only for eating, but also for cooking. It was considered important that the table be covered with a tablecloth. Those who could afford it used napkins to help keep the table and tablecloth clean, made from fabrics of varying prices.

On the table prepared for dinner there was a napkin, a spoon and a tray (from English “trencher”), which was a thin piece of four-day bread. It could be eaten if the wait was unbearable, but, as a rule, such food was given to dogs or the poor. Over time, this edible tray was replaced by wood and metal. In general, its function was to prevent food taken from a common bowl from staining the cloth on the table.

An indispensable tool on the table was the salt shaker. By its appearance one could determine the degree of nobility and wealth of a person.

Royals even ordered it from special craftsmen in the shape of a boat. There were no knives on the table, and guests had to bring them themselves. In addition to completely understandable functions, they also added a pinch of salt.

Of course, there were no forks in the Middle Ages. Its analogues had much larger size and were used to remove meat from the cauldron or add wood to the fire.

The main equipment for eating, of course, was own hands. Moreover, they had to be washed not only before and after meals, but sometimes during it. If there was a meal of noble people, a special person was present in the hall with a towel, a basin for washing hands and a special bowl to test the water for the presence of poison.

Alcohol and the dishes from which it was poured were of great importance at the table. This included both the traditional beer horn and the wooden drinking vessel maser (from the English “mazer”), various bowls and goblets. Objects made of glass were not only a very rare guest at the table, but also enjoyed less respect than painted pottery from Valencia or Andalusia.

Joachim Beckeler – Rich cuisine

Who was present at the big feast?

If guests gathered in the house for a large and magnificent celebration, then the venue for the feast turned into a real performance. In addition to musicians, singers, jugglers, and jesters, each guest had to observe a certain etiquette, colorfully described in many historical documents of that time. Then all the most beautiful products of modern artisans appeared on the table: silver goblets, painted bowls, amazingly shaped salt shakers, and so on. This helped the owner of the house demonstrate his status and wealth.

It should be noted that such large feasts were intended for males. The only women present at the table were the wives of the owners of the house and the honored invited female guests with their attendants. The wives of the other invited men dined separately in the owner's bedroom. Later, this tradition became a thing of the past, and a private dinner became more of a privilege for invited guests.

It is impossible not to mention that at every major holiday there was a whole team of domestic servants.

These included: the housekeeper, the master of ceremonies, who was in charge of the entire feast, the head of the servants and taster majordomo, the head of the pantry (from English “pantler”), the butler in charge of drinks (from English “butler”) and, in fact, the aforementioned man with a basin for hand washing. Moreover, some of the servants were required to taste all the wine for the presence of poison.

And now to the most important thing. In addition to products grown in the fields and local farms, a variety of overseas fruits and spices were available to wealthy citizens.

Cereals

Wheat. The second most valuable cultivated cereal after barley. Brought to Europe by the Romans from Iran and Syria, it was virtually synonymous with food in general, as it was the basis for bread. Almost every baked product contained wheat flour, and it was also added to sausages and soups. Wheat was considered the highest grade, from which soft and nutritious bread was obtained.

Barley. It was suitable for workers whose stomachs were believed to be less delicate and could digest coarse grinding. For the poor, barley bread was the basis of the diet, and for the rich it was used as a tray, which is described above. However, the more certain regions of Europe drank beer, the more often barley production exceeded wheat products. Moreover, doctors considered barley a “cooling” product, so they advised the use of barley tinctures for fever.

Rye. It was also not considered a good grain, but was actively used for making bread in combination with wheat flour in northern and eastern Europe. Frequent infection of rye with ergot (ergot), which affected crops and caused hallucinations, poisoning and death in people, complicated the use of this type of cereal.

Oats. Unlike the above-mentioned cereals, oats were first cultivated in Central Europe and was very popular in Scotland, Scandinavia and Russia, where porridge was prepared from it.

In other parts of Europe, it, like barley, was considered a “cold” product for rude people. Thus, the stereotype about “severe Russians” is also explained by food preferences

Millet. This cereal was the basis of the daily diet of the Greeks and Romans, consisting of porridge and unleavened bread. European cookbooks very rarely even mentioned the very existence of this crop, which was used as animal feed. And doctors believed that millet caused digestive problems and had virtually no nutritional value.

Rice. Literally the food of nobility and luxury. Introduced from northern Africa, rice quickly spread throughout Europe. And by the late Middle Ages, it became the basis of not only the daily diet, but was also used for medicinal purposes. Allegedly, when adding milk, rice increased blood circulation and promoted recovery.

Vegetables

Beans and beans. A very controversial product in its usefulness. On the one hand, beans and green beans have often been criticized for being associated with flatulence and even favism (a type of anemia). On the other hand, these crops were extremely popular among monks and the poor. In addition, high society cookbooks did not ignore this product, and doctors advised using beans and beans not as food, but as a cure for a number of diseases.

Garlic. You have certainly seen that many films about the Middle Ages cannot do without associations with the smell of garlic. However, this is true. The smell of garlic literally hovered throughout Europe: various sauces were made from it, and it was considered a cure for headaches and poisonous bites. And they even believed that it helped protect against the plague and caused lust.

Onion. This vegetable was widespread in ancient times and found its place in the Middle Ages. Despite their association with low class, onions were an essential ingredient for making sauces, broths, and various toppings. Doctors especially praised this product for its diuretic effect, increasing potency and appetite.

Cabbage. For a long time it was a forage variety, that is, it grew without a head, and in the Middle Ages it was distributed only among the Scots, Germans and Dutch. Evidence of the appearance of ordinary cabbage dates back to the 1st century AD. e. This product was an important part of the diet of the poor, as evidenced by the extremely popular consumption of Bavarian cabbage. However, doctors believed that it led to melancholy and caused nightmares.

Sometimes cabbage leaves were used like plantain today - applied to wounds.

In addition, the diet of medieval people included spinach, radishes, parsnips, beets, carrots, cucumbers, various mushrooms, and so on.

Fruits and berries

WITH fruits the situation was more complicated. The medical community had a negative attitude towards the consumption of raw fruits. You need to understand that everything sour or “cold” was considered unsuitable for nutrition, causing various diseases. This situation is associated with a misconception, the roots of which rest on the works of ancient authors, including Hippocrates and Galen.

It was believed that four fluids flow in the human body: blood, phlegm, black and yellow bile.

The predominance of one of them had a direct impact on human health, behavior and psyche. For example, black bile led to melancholy and disorders of consciousness. Thus, the “cold” product excited the “cold” liquid.

For this reason, most of the fruits were used to prepare alcoholic drinks, baked goods, and as a side dish. Apples And pears were much more bitter than today, and were often served with meat dishes. Quince added to the stew. From drain We made fruit mousse. Peaches eaten before meals to stimulate appetite, although if consumed after they acted as a laxative. Cherry preserved. Strawberries And strawberry often associated with the Virgin Mary and were a delicacy. Pomegranate in the Middle Ages it was considered a symbol of fertility and a positive effect on potency. Citrus They were very popular in Arab countries, but in Europe they were considered food for the rich.

Nuts

Nuts were very popular in the Middle Ages. Almond, for example, was common to such an extent that in some cookbooks a quarter of the recipes could not do without it. Sauces, marzipan, and nougat were made from it. Just like today, in the Middle Ages almonds were considered beneficial for the brain. In addition, doctors were sure that a handful of these nuts would help you stay drunk longer from alcohol. Walnuts And cedar nuts were popular during Lent. Chestnuts valued for its nutritional properties, especially necessary during periods of famine, but criticized for causing flatulence.

Seasonings

As already written above, without salt not a single feast was spared. It was of two types: stone and sea. In addition to eating, salt was used to preserve food. Honey often served the same purpose. Medieval cooks sought to ensure that their honey was as white in consistency as possible, and doctors added it to medications. But the main use, of course, was the production of mead. Vinegar called “sour wine” and was a universal seasoning. The so-called verjuice, produced from the tart juice of a wild apple tree.

Peter Aertsen – The Butcher's Shop

Meat

Pork considered one of the most nutritious types of meat. A number of medieval doctors even wrote that it tastes closest to human flesh. Similar messages were encountered quite often.

Although most researchers of medieval history are confident that cannibalism, even during sieges, was an extremely rare occurrence.

Domesticated pigs were of two types: short-legged, kept in a pen, and long-legged, which could roam both in the local forest and right along the village streets. Not a single part of the pork was wasted, because even bladder, stomach and intestines of an animal. By the way, wild meat wild boar was considered even healthier than domestic pork.

Beef was less common. Cows were used as arable animals, from whose milk cheese and butter were produced. In addition, beef was considered the cheapest type of meat that could lead a person to melancholy.

Mutton occupied the most honorable place in the market and at a price much higher than the cost of pork. Roasted leg of lamb seasoned with garlic and cooked with cinnamon, saffron, lemon juice and quince was considered the highest culinary masterpiece.

Chicken and remains the most common meat to this day. A quarter of medieval dishes contained chicken. The medical community considered it ideal for both daily use and for the rapid recovery of a sick person, improving blood circulation and potency.

Goose more often he stood in the center of the monastery feast. Duck criticized by doctors and rarely eaten. Peacock, despite its beautiful appearance, had tough meat, but its presence in the poultry house was used as a demonstration of status.

Fish

It is difficult to imagine the Middle Ages without fish. Firstly, it was more accessible to all segments of the population and provided the population of Europe with protein. Secondly, during Lent, when meat consumption was prohibited, believers switched to fish. It was fried, smoked, boiled, baked, added to pies and made into fish jelly. However, it should be noted that cooks and doctors rarely distinguished between different types fish, considering them equally tasty and healthy.

Joachim Beckeler – The Four Elements: Water

Drank, ate, had fun

We can conclude that the diet of a medieval person included everything that we eat today, but the predominance of certain products depended on a number of factors: financial, religious, whether the person trusted doctors and whether he was even familiar with them works. In addition, what medieval authors called Europe was more likely England, France and partly Germany, but in Eastern Europe had their own unique dishes.

Another thing is that the set of rules for behavior at the table and the organization of the process itself were unusual. A real theatrical performance at a medieval festival is still an object of interest for both professionals, scientists, reenactors, and simply interested people

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Every year there is a higher and higher level of preparation for medieval festivals. The most stringent requirements are imposed on the identity of a suit, shoes, tent, and household items. However, for a stronger immersion in the environment, it would be good to adhere to other rules of the eras. One of them is identical food. It happens that a reenactor spends money on the costume of a rich nobleman, selects his court (team), surroundings, and has buckwheat porridge in his pot and on the table.

What did the inhabitants of various classes of the city and village of the Middle Ages eat?

In the XI-XIII centuries. The food of most of the population of Western Europe was very monotonous. They especially consumed a lot of bread. Bread and wine (grape juice) were the main, popular food products of the unprivileged population of Europe. According to French researchers, in the X-XI centuries. secularists and monks consumed 1.6-1.7 kg of bread per day, which was washed down with large amounts of wine, grape juice or water. Peasants were often limited to 1 kg of bread and 1 liter of juice per day. The poorest drank fresh water, and to prevent it from going rotten, they put in it marsh plants containing ether - arum, calamus, etc. A wealthy city dweller in the late Middle Ages ate up to 1 kg of bread daily. The main European cereals during the Middle Ages were wheat and rye, of which the first predominated in the South and Central Europe, the second - in Northern. Barley was extremely widespread. The main grain crops were significantly supplemented by spelled and millet (in the southern regions), oats (in the northern). In Southern Europe, they mainly consumed wheat bread, in Northern Europe, barley bread, and in Eastern Europe, rye bread. For a long time, bread products were unleavened flatbreads (bread in the form of a loaf and loaves of bread began to be baked only towards the end of the Middle Ages). The cakes were hard and dry because they were baked without yeast. Barley cakes lasted longer than others, so warriors (including crusading knights) and wanderers preferred to take them on the road.

Medieval mobile bread maker 1465-1475. Most ovens were naturally stationary.	The feast in Matsievsky's Bible (B. M. 1240-1250) looks very modest. Or the features of the image. Perhaps in the middle of the 13th century it was difficult to find food.
They kill a bull with a hammer. “Book of Trecento Drawings” Tacuina sanitatis Casanatense 4182 (XIV century)	Fish seller. “Book of Trecento Drawings” Tacuina sanitatis Casanatense 4182 (XIV century)
Feast, page detail January, Book of Hours of the Limburg Brothers, cycle "Seasons". 1410-1411	Vegetable vendor. Hood. Joachim Beuckelaer (1533-74)
Dance among the eggs, 1552. art. Aertsen Pieter	Kitchen interior from the parable of the feast, 1605. Hood. Joachim Wtewael
Trader fructati 1580. Hood. Vincenzo Campi Vincenzo Campi (1536–1591)	Fishwife. Hood. Vincenzo Campi Vincenzo Campi (1536–1591)
Kitchen. Hood. Vincenzo Campi Vincenzo Campi (1536–1591)	Game shop, 1618-1621. Hood. Franz Snyders Franz Snyders (with Jan Wildens)

The bread of the poor was different from the bread of the rich. The first one was mainly rye and of low quality. On the table of the rich, wheat bread made from sifted flour was common. Obviously, the peasants, even if they grew wheat, almost did not know the taste of wheat bread. Their lot was Rye bread from poorly ground flour. Often bread was replaced with flatbreads made from flour of other cereals, or even from chestnuts, which played the role of a very important food resource in Southern Europe (before the advent of potatoes). In times of famine, the poor added acorns and roots to their bread.

The next most frequently consumed foods after bread and grape juice (or wine) were salads and vinaigrettes. Although their components were different than in our time. The main vegetable plant was turnip. It has been used since the 6th century. in raw, boiled and mushy form. Turnips were definitely included in daily menu. After the turnip came the radish. In Northern Europe, rutabaga and cabbage were added to almost every dish. In the East - horseradish, in the South - lentils, peas, beans of different varieties. They even baked bread from peas. Stews were usually made with peas or beans.

The range of medieval garden crops differed from the modern one. In use were asparagus, boudiak, kupena, which were added to the salad; quinoa, potashnik, kudryavets - mixed in vinaigrette; sorrel, nettle, hogweed - added to the soup. Bearberry, knotweed, mint and bison were chewed raw.

Carrots and beets entered the diet only in the 16th century.

The most common fruit crops in the Middle Ages were apple and gooseberry. In fact, until the end of the fifteenth century. The range of vegetables and fruits grown in European gardens and gardens did not change significantly compared to the Roman era. But, thanks to the Arabs, Europeans of the Middle Ages became acquainted with citrus fruits: oranges and lemons. Almonds came from Egypt, and apricots came from the East (after the Crusades).

In addition to bread, they ate a lot of cereals. In the North - barley, in the East - rye grout, in the South - semolina. Buckwheat was almost never sown in the Middle Ages. Very common crops were millet and spelt. Millet is the oldest grain in Europe; millet cakes and millet porridge were made from it. Noodles were made from unpretentious spelled, which grew almost everywhere and was not afraid of the vagaries of the weather. Corn, potatoes, tomatoes, sunflowers and much more, known today, were not yet known to medieval people.

The diet of ordinary townspeople and peasants differed from the modern diet in that it contained insufficient protein. About 60% of the diet (if not more for certain low-income groups of the population) was carbohydrates: bread, flatbreads, and various cereals. The lack of nutritional value of food was compensated for by quantity. People ate only when their stomachs were full. And the feeling of fullness was usually associated with heaviness in the stomach. Meat was consumed relatively rarely, mainly during holidays. True, the table of noble lords, clergy and city aristocracy was very plentiful and varied.

There have always been differences in the diet of the “top” and “bottom” of society. The former were not disadvantaged in meat dishes, primarily due to the prevalence of hunting, since there was still quite a lot of game in the forests of the medieval West at that time. There were bears, wolverines, deer, wild boars, roe deer, aurochs, bison, and hares; of birds - black grouse, partridges, wood grouse, bustards, wild geese, ducks, etc. According to archaeologists, medieval people ate the meat of birds such as crane, eagle, magpie, rook, heron, and bittern. Small birds from the order passerines were considered a delicacy. Chopped starlings and tits were added to vegetable salads. Fried kings and shrikes were served cold. Orioles and flycatchers were baked, wagtails were stewed, swallows and larks were stuffed into pies. The more beautiful the bird was, the more delicious the dish made from it was considered. For example, pate from nightingale tongues was prepared only on major holidays by royal or ducal chefs. At the same time, significantly more animals were exterminated than could be eaten or stored for future use, and, as a rule, most of the meat of wild animals simply disappeared due to the impossibility of preserving it. Therefore, by the end of the Middle Ages, hunting could no longer be relied upon as a reliable means of subsistence. Secondly, the table of a noble person could always be replenished at the expense of the city market (the market in Paris was especially famous for its abundance), where one could buy a wide variety of products - from game to fine wines and fruits. In addition to game, the meat of domestic birds and animals was consumed - pork (for fattening pigs, a part of the forest was usually fenced off and wild boars were driven there), lamb, goat meat; meat of geese and chickens. The balance of meat and plant foods depended not only on geographical, economic and social, but also on the religious conditions of society. As is known, a total of about half of the year (166 days) in the Middle Ages consisted of fasting days associated with four main and weekly (Wednesday, Friday, Saturday) fasts. On these days, eating meat and meat and dairy products was forbidden with greater or lesser severity. Exceptions were made only for the seriously ill, women in labor, and Jews. In the Mediterranean region, less meat was consumed than in Northern Europe. The hot climate of the Mediterranean probably had an effect. But he’s not the only one. Due to the traditional lack of feed, grazing, etc. Fewer livestock were raised there. The highest meat consumption in Europe during the late Middle Ages was in Hungary: on average about 80 kg per year. In Italy, in Florence, for example, about 50 kg. In Siena 30 kg in the 15th century. In Central and Eastern Europe they ate more beef and pork. In England, Spain, Southern France and Italy - lamb. Pigeons were bred specifically for food. City dwellers ate more meat than peasants. Of all the types of food consumed at that time, it was mainly pork that was easily digestible; other foods often contributed to indigestion. Probably for this reason, the type of a fat, puffy person, outwardly quite portly, but in reality simply poorly nourished and suffering from unhealthy obesity, became widespread.

Fish noticeably supplemented and diversified the table of medieval people (especially on days of numerous long fasts) - fresh (they ate raw or half-raw fish mainly in winter, when there was a lack of greens and vitamins), but especially smoked, dried, dried or salted (they ate such fish on the road, just like flatbreads). For residents of the sea coast, fish and seafood constituted almost the main food products. The Baltic and North Sea were fed with herring, the Atlantic with cod and mackerel, the Mediterranean with tuna and sardines. Far from the sea, the waters of large and small rivers and lakes served as a source of rich fish resources. Fish, less than meat, was the privilege of the rich. But if the food of the poor was cheap local fish, then the rich could afford to feast on “noble” fish brought from afar.

For a long time, mass salting of fish was hampered by a shortage of salt, which was a very expensive product in those days. Rock salt was rarely mined; salt-containing sources were more often used: salt water was evaporated in salt works, and then the salt was pressed into cakes, which were sold at a high price. Sometimes these pieces of salt - of course, this primarily concerns the early Middle Ages - played the role of money. But even later, housewives took care of every pinch of salt, so it was not easy to salt a lot of fish. The lack of salt was partly compensated by the use of spices - cloves, pepper, cinnamon, laurel, nutmeg and many others. etc. Pepper and cinnamon were brought from the East, and they were very expensive, because ordinary people could not afford them. The common people often ate mustard, dill, caraway seeds, onions, and garlic that grew everywhere. The widespread use of spices can be explained not only by the gastronomic tastes of the era, but it was also prestigious. In addition, spices were used to diversify dishes and, if possible, hide the bad smell of meat, fish, and poultry, which were difficult to keep fresh in the Middle Ages. And finally, the abundance of spices put into sauces and gravies compensated for poor processing of food and roughness of dishes. At the same time, very often spices changed the original taste of food and caused a strong burning sensation in the stomach.

In the XI-XIII centuries. medieval man rarely ate dairy products and consumed little fat. For a long time, the main sources of vegetable fat were flax and hemp (olive oil was common in Greece and the Middle East; north of the Alps it was practically unknown); animal - pig. It was noticed that fats were more common in southern Europe plant origin, in the north - an animal. Vegetable oil was also produced from pistachios, almonds, walnuts and pine nuts, chestnuts and mustard.

The inhabitants of the mountains (especially in Switzerland) made cheese from milk, and the inhabitants of the plains made cottage cheese. Sour milk was used to make curdled milk. Very rarely, milk was used to make sour cream and butter. Animal oil in general was an extraordinary luxury, and was constantly on the table only of kings, emperors, and the highest nobility. For a long time, Europe was limited in sweets; sugar appeared in Europe thanks to the Arabs and until the 16th century. was considered a luxury. It was obtained from sugar cane and production was expensive and labor intensive. Therefore, sugar was available only to wealthy segments of society.

Of course, the food supply largely depended on the natural, climatic and weather conditions of a particular area. Any whim of nature (drought, heavy rains, early frosts, storms, etc.) took the peasant’s economy out of its normal rhythm and could lead to famine, the fear of which Europeans experienced throughout the Middle Ages. Therefore, it is no coincidence that throughout the Middle Ages many medieval authors constantly spoke about the threat of famine. For example, an empty stomach became a constant theme in the medieval novel about the fox Renard. In the Middle Ages, when the threat of hunger always lurked for a person, the main advantage of food and table was satiety and abundance. On holiday it was necessary to eat so much that on hungry days there would be something to remember. Therefore, for a wedding in the village, the family slaughtered the last cattle and cleaned the cellar to the ground. On weekdays, a piece of bacon with bread was considered “royal food” by the English commoner, and some Italian sharecropper limited himself to a piece of bread with cheese and an onion. In general, as F. Braudel points out, during the late Middle Ages the average weight was limited to 2 thousand calories per day and only the upper strata of society “reached” the needs of a modern person (it is defined as 3.5 – 5 thousand calories). In the Middle Ages they usually ate twice a day. From those times, a funny saying has been preserved that angels need food once a day, people twice, and animals three times. They ate at different hours than now. The peasants had breakfast no later than 6 o’clock in the morning (it is no coincidence that breakfast in German was called “frustük”, i.e. “early piece”, the French name for breakfast “dezhene” and the Italian name “dijune” (early) are similar in meaning to it. ) In the morning we ate most of the day's ration in order to work better. During the day the soup came (“soupE” in France, “sopper” (soup food) in England, “mittag” (midday) in Germany), and people ate their afternoon meal. By evening the work was over - there was no need to eat. As soon as it got dark, the ordinary people of the village and city went to bed. Over time, the nobility imposed its food tradition on the entire society: breakfast moved closer to noon, lunch wedged itself into the middle of the day, and dinner moved towards the evening.

At the end of the 15th century, the first consequences of the Great Geographical Discoveries began to affect the food of Europeans. After the discovery of the New World, pumpkin, zucchini, Mexican cucumber, sweet potatoes (yams), beans, peppers, cocoa, coffee, as well as corn (maize), potatoes, tomatoes, sunflowers, which were brought by the Spaniards and British from America, appeared in the diet of Europeans. at the beginning of the sixteenth century.

Among drinks, grape wine traditionally occupied the first place - and not only because Europeans happily indulged in the pleasures of Bacchus. The consumption of wine was forced by the poor quality of water, which, as a rule, was not boiled and which, due to the fact that nothing was known about pathogenic microbes, caused stomach diseases. They drank a lot of wine, according to some researchers, up to 1.5 liters per day. Even children were given wine. Wine was necessary not only for meals, but also for preparing medicines. Along with olive oil, it was considered a good solvent. Wine was also used for church needs, during the liturgy, and grape must satisfied the needs of medieval people for sweets. But if the bulk of the population resorted to local wine, more often Bad quality, then the upper strata of society ordered themselves fine wines from distant countries. In the late Middle Ages, Cypriot, Rhine, Moselle, Tokay wines, and Malvasia enjoyed a high reputation. At a later time - port, Madeira, sherry, Malaga. In the south they preferred natural wines, in the north of Europe, in cooler climates, fortified ones. Over time, they became addicted to vodka and alcohol (they learned to make alcohol in distillers around 1100, but for a long time the production of alcohol was in the hands of pharmacists, who considered alcohol as a medicine that gave a feeling of “warmth and confidence”), who for a long time treated it as medicine. At the end of the fifteenth century. This “medicine” appealed to so many citizens that the Nuremberg authorities were forced to ban the sale of alcohol on holidays. In the 14th century Italian liqueur appeared, and in the same century they learned to make alcohol from fermented grain.

Grape crush. Pergola training, 1385 Bologne, Niccolo-student, Forli.	Brewer at work. the housebook of the brother's endowment of the family Mendel 1425.
Tavern Party, Flanders 1455	Good and bad manners. Valerius Maximus, Facta et dicta memorabilia, Bruges 1475

A truly popular drink, especially north of the Alps, was beer, which even the nobility did not refuse. The best beer was brewed from sprouted barley (malt) with the addition of hops (by the way, the use of hops for brewing was precisely a discovery of the Middle Ages, the first reliable mention of it dates back to the 12th century; in general, barley beer (mash) was known in ancient times) and what some cereal. From the 12th century beer is mentioned constantly. Barley beer (ale) was especially popular in England, but brewing based on the use of hops came here from the continent only around 1400. In terms of quantity, beer consumption was approximately the same as wine, i.e. 1.5 liters daily. In Northern France, beer competed with cider, which came into widespread use from the end of the 15th century. and enjoyed success mainly among the common people.

From the second half of the 16th century. chocolate appeared in Europe; in the first half of the seventeenth century. - coffee and tea, because they cannot be considered “medieval” drinks.

There is a huge amount of material on this issue. However, several centuries of development of culinary art can hardly be fully explored. Much has already been written about medieval cuisine and even more has been said.

The material below contains many useful and interesting facts. I hope you have a good time reading this article about medieval cuisine.

But it is necessary to clarify one point once again, namely: the dishes served on the tables of gentlemen - aristocrats, landowners, people in power, both spiritual and secular - differed very significantly from what ordinary people who worked on their lands and dependent on them, including financially.

However, when in the 13th century, the boundaries between classes began to blur, the powers that be became concerned about how to retain workers, and decided to play on the love of the “home”, allowing the peasants to feast on food from their table.

Bread

But the use of chlorine was not widespread and was rather determined by the type of bread: some cunning bakers bleached their rye and oat bread with chlorine, and then sold it at a profit, passing it off as white (chalk and crushed bone were readily used for the same purposes). And since, in addition to these very unhealthy bleaching agents, dried flies were often baked into bread as raisins, the extremely cruel punishments meted out to fraudulent bakers appear in a new light.

Those who wanted to make easy money from bread often had to break the law. And almost everywhere this was punishable by significant monetary fines. In Switzerland, fraudulent bakers were hanged in a cage over a dung pit. Accordingly, those who wanted to get out of it had to jump straight into the fetid mess.

To stop bullying, to prevent the disrepute of their profession from spreading, and also to control themselves, bakers united in the first industrial association - the guild. Thanks to her, that is, thanks to the fact that representatives of this profession cared about their membership in the guild, real masters of baking appeared.

Pasta

There are many legends about cuisine and recipes. The most beautiful of them was described by Marco Polo, who in 1295 brought with her from his trip to Asia a recipe for making dumplings and “threads” from dough.

It is believed that this story was heard by a Venetian cook who began tirelessly mixing water, flour, eggs, sunflower oil and salt until he achieved the best consistency for the noodle dough.

It is not known whether this is true or whether noodles came to Europe from Arab countries thanks to the crusaders and merchants, but it is a fact that European cuisine soon became unthinkable without it.
However, in the 15th century there were still bans on the preparation of pasta, since in the event of a particularly unsuccessful harvest, flour was necessary for baking bread. But since the Renaissance, the triumphant march of pasta across Europe could no longer be stopped.

Porridge and thick soup.

Until the era of the Roman Empire, porridge was present in the diet of all segments of society, and only then turned into food for the poor. However, it was very popular among them; they ate it three or even four times a day, and in some houses they ate it exclusively. This state of affairs continued until the 18th century, when potatoes replaced porridge.

It should be noted that the porridge of that time differs significantly from our current ideas about this product: medieval porridge cannot be called “porridge-like”, in the meaning that we give to this word today, it was hard, so hard that it could be cut. Another feature of that porridge was that it didn’t matter what it consisted of.
One Irish law of the 8th century clearly stated which segments of the population were supposed to eat what kind of porridge: “For the lower class, oatmeal cooked in buttermilk and old butter for it are quite enough; representatives of the middle class are supposed to eat porridge made from pearl barley and fresh milk, and fresh butter should be put in it; and porridge sweetened with honey from wheat flour and fresh milk should be served to the royal offspring.”

Along with porridge, since ancient times, humanity has known a “one-dish lunch” - a thick soup that replaces the first and second.

It is found in the cuisines of a wide variety of cultures (the Arabs and Chinese use a double pot to prepare it - meat and various vegetables are boiled in the lower compartment, and the steam rises from it for rice) and just like porridge, it was food for the poor, until Its preparations did not use expensive ingredients.

There is also a practical explanation for the special love for this dish: in medieval kitchens (both princely and peasant), food was prepared in a cauldron suspended on rotating mechanisms over an open fire (later in a fireplace). And what could be simpler than throwing all the ingredients that you can get into such a cauldron and preparing a rich broth from them. At the same time, the taste of the soup is very easy to change by simply changing the ingredients.

Although archaeological finds show that peasants ate pearl barley porridge and vegetables much more often, they also ate meat.

Meat, lard, butter

Having read books about the life of aristocrats, and being impressed by the colorful descriptions of feasts, modern man firmly believed that representatives of this class ate exclusively game. In fact, this dish made up only 5% of their diet.

Pheasants, swans, wild ducks, wood grouse, deer... It sounds magical. But in fact, chickens, geese, sheep and goats were usually served at the table.

Roast occupied a special place in medieval cuisine.

When talking or reading about meat cooked on a spit or grill, we forget about the more than insignificant development of dentistry at that time. How can you chew tough meat with a toothless jaw? Ingenuity came to the rescue: the meat was kneaded in a mortar to a mushy state, thickened by adding eggs and flour, and the resulting mass was fried on a spit in the shape of an ox or sheep.

The same thing was sometimes done with fish; the peculiarity of this variation of the dish was that the “porridge” was pushed into the skin skillfully pulled off the fish, and then boiled or fried.

The corresponding state of dentistry also influenced the fact that vegetables were usually served in the form of puree (chopped vegetables mixed with flour and egg). The first person to start serving vegetables cut into pieces was Maitre Martino.

It seems strange to us now that fried meat in the Middle Ages was often also cooked in broth, and cooked chicken, rolled in flour, was added to the soup. With such double processing, the meat lost not only its crispiness, but also its taste.

As for the fat content of food and ways to make it so, aristocrats used sunflower oil and later butter for these purposes, and peasants were content with lard.

Canning

Drying, smoking and salting as methods of preserving food were already known in the Middle Ages.

1. They dried fruits - pears, apples, cherries - and vegetables. Dried or oven-dried, they were preserved for a long time and were often used in cooking: they were especially popular added to wine. Fruits were also used to make compote (fruit, ginger). However, the resulting liquid was not consumed immediately, but thickened and then cut: the result was something like candy - great-candy.
2. They smoked meat, fish and sausage - this was primarily due to the seasonality of the slaughter of livestock, which took place in October-November, since, firstly, at the beginning of November it was necessary to pay a tax in kind, and secondly, it allowed not to spend money in winter for animal feed.
3. Sea fish, imported for consumption during Lent, was preferred to be salted. Many varieties of vegetables, such as beans and peas, were also pickled. As for cabbage, it was fermented, that is, it was placed in brine.

Seasonings

Seasonings were an integral attribute of medieval cuisine. Moreover, there is no point in distinguishing between seasonings for the poor and seasonings for the rich, because only the rich could afford to have spices.

The easiest and cheapest option was to buy pepper. The import of pepper made a lot of people rich, but also brought many people to the gallows, namely those who cheated and mixed dried berries into the pepper. Along with pepper, the favorite seasonings in the Middle Ages were cinnamon, cardamom, ginger, and nutmeg. Saffron deserves special mention: it was even several times more expensive than the very expensive nutmeg (in the 20s of the 15th century, when nutmeg was sold for 48 kreuzers, saffron cost about one hundred and eighty, which corresponded to the price of a horse).

Most cookbooks of that period do not indicate the proportions of spices, but, based on books from a later period, we can conclude that these proportions did not correspond to our tastes today, and dishes seasoned as it was done in the Middle Ages might seem very different to us. sharp and even burn the palate.

Spices were not only used to demonstrate richness, they also covered the smell emitted by meat and other foods. In the Middle Ages, meat and fish stocks were often salted so that they would not spoil for as long as possible and would not cause illness. And, therefore, spices were designed to drown out not only smells but also taste - the taste of salt. Or sour. Spices, honey and rose water were used to sweeten sour wine so that it could be served to the gentlemen.

Zelenyushka

Herbs were valued for their healing power; treatment without herbs was unthinkable. But they also occupied a special place in cooking.

Southern herbs, namely marjoram, basil and thyme, familiar to modern people, were not found in the northern countries in the Middle Ages.

But such herbs were used that we don’t even remember today.

We, as before, know and appreciate the magical properties of parsley (the favorite herb in the Middle Ages), mint, dill, caraway, sage, lovage, savory, fennel; nettle and calendula are still fighting for space in the sun and in the pan. But who today remembers, for example, lily flowers or beet tops?

Almond milk and marzipan

In every medieval kitchen of the powerful, in addition to spices, almonds were sure to be present. They especially liked to make almond milk from it (crushed almonds, wine, water), which was then used as a base for preparing various dishes and sauces, and during Lent they replaced real milk.

Marzipan, also made from almonds (grated almonds with sugar syrup), was a luxury item in the Middle Ages. In fact, this dish is considered a Greco-Roman invention. Researchers conclude that the small almond cakes that the Romans sacrificed to their gods were the forerunners of sweet almond dough (pane Martius (spring bread) - Marzipan).

Honey and sugar

In the Middle Ages, food was sweetened exclusively with honey.

Although cane sugar was known in Southern Italy already in the 8th century, the rest of Europe learned the secret of its production only during the Crusades. But even then, sugar continued to remain a luxury: at the beginning of the 15th century, six kilograms of sugar cost as much as a horse.

It was only in 1747 that Andreas Sigismund Markgraf discovered the secret of producing sugar from sugar beets, but this did not particularly affect the situation. Industrial and, accordingly, mass production of sugar began only in the 19th century, and only then did sugar become a product “for everyone.”

These facts allow us to look at medieval feasts with new eyes: only those who possessed excessive wealth could afford to organize them, because most of the dishes consisted of sugar, and many dishes were intended only to be admired and admired, but not were eaten.

Feasts

We read with amazement about the carcasses of hazel dormouse, storks, eagles, bears and beaver tails that were served at the table in those days.

We think about how tough the meat of storks and beavers must taste, about how rare animals like the dormouse and the hazel dormouse are.

At the same time, we forget that numerous changes of dishes were intended, first of all, not to satisfy hunger, but to demonstrate wealth. Who could be indifferent to the sight of such a dish as a peacock “spouting” flame? And the fried bear paws were displayed on the table definitely not to glorify the hunting abilities of the owner of the house, who belongs to the highest circles of society and is unlikely to earn his living by hunting.

Along with amazing hot dishes, feasts included sweet baked works of art; dishes made of sugar, gypsum, salt as tall as a man and even more. All this was intended mainly for visual perception. Especially for these purposes, holidays were organized, at which the prince and princess publicly tasted meat, poultry, cakes, and pastries on a raised platform. There was an incredible amount of food and, it should be noted to the credit of the princes, that the leftover food, uneaten by the servants and maids, was divided among the poor.

Colorful food

Multi-colored dishes were extremely popular in the Middle Ages and at the same time easy to prepare. Coats of arms, family colors and even entire paintings were depicted on pies and cakes; many sweet foods, such as jelly from almond milk, a variety of colors were given (in the cookbooks of the Middle Ages you can find a recipe for making such a three-color jelly).

Meat, fish, and chicken were also painted. The most common colorants:

Green: parsley or spinach
Black: grated black bread or gingerbread; clove powder, black cherry juice.
Red: vegetable or berry juice, (red) beets.
Yellow: saffron or egg yolk with flour
Brown: onion skin

The Ushanya also liked to gild and silver, but, of course, this could only be done by the cooks of gentlemen who were able to put the appropriate means at their disposal. And although the addition of coloring substances changed the taste of the dish, they turned a blind eye to this in order to obtain a beautiful color.

However, with colored food, sometimes funny and not so funny things happened. So at one holiday in Florence, guests were almost poisoned by the colorful creation of an inventor-cook who used chlorine to obtain white and verdigris - to get green.

Fast

Medieval cooks also showed their resourcefulness and skill during Lent: when preparing fish dishes, they seasoned them in a special way so that they tasted like meat, invented pseudo-eggs and tried in every way to circumvent strict rules post.

The clergy and their cooks especially tried. So, for example, they expanded the concept of “aquatic animals”, including the beaver (its tail was classified as “fish scales”). After all, the fast then lasted a third of the year. Today it seems wild to us, however, it was so, and even more: there were also fasting days - Wednesday and Friday - on which it was forbidden to eat meat.

Strictly speaking, fasting is not limited to abstaining from meat. This also means giving up eggs, milk, and dairy products such as cheese and cottage cheese. Only in 1491 was it allowed to eat milk and eggs during Lent.

This is about the rules for ordinary people. In addition to these, there were rules for certain groups of the population, especially for members of religious orders. So the Benedictines (respectively, monks, and not the higher clergy) could not eat four-legged animals.

Problems with the issue of chicken consumption existed until the 9th century, when Bishop von Mainz found a loophole in the law: birds and fish were created by God on the same day, and therefore must be classified as the same species of animal. And just as you can eat fish caught from the depths of the sea, you can also eat a bird caught from a bowl of soup.

Four meals a day

The day began with the first breakfast, limited to a glass of wine.

At approximately 9 o'clock in the morning it was time for a second breakfast, which consisted of several courses.

It should be clarified that this is not the modern “first, second and compote”. Each course consisted of a large number of dishes, which the servants served to the table. This led to the fact that anyone who organized a banquet - whether on the occasion of christenings, weddings or funerals - tried not to lose face and serve as many goodies as possible to the table, not paying attention to their capabilities, and therefore often getting into debt.

To put an end to this state of affairs, numerous regulations were introduced that regulated the number of dishes and even the number of guests. For example, in 1279, the French king Philip III issued a decree stating that “no duke, count, baron, prelate, knight, cleric, etc. has the right to eat more than three modest courses (cheeses and vegetables, unlike cakes and pastries, were not taken into account). The modern tradition of serving one dish at a time came to Europe from Russia only in the 18th century.

At lunch, they were again allowed to drink only a glass of wine, eating it with a piece of bread soaked in wine. And only for dinner, which took place from 3 to 6 pm, an incredible amount of food was again served. Naturally, this is a “schedule” for the upper strata of society.

Peasants and workers were busy with business and could not devote as much time to eating as aristocrats (often they only managed to have one modest snack during the day), and their income did not allow them to do this: instead of a morning glass of wine - beer, instead fried meat and sweets - pearl barley porridge and vegetable "soup".

Cutlery and crockery

Two cutlery items had a hard time gaining recognition in the Middle Ages: the fork and the personal use plate. Yes, there were wooden plates for the lower classes and silver or even gold ones for the higher ones, but they ate mainly from common dishes. Moreover, instead of a plate, stale bread was sometimes used for these purposes, which slowly absorbed and prevented the table from getting dirty.

Here it is necessary to say a few words about sauces. Medieval sauces were different from today's: they were very thick, to the point that they could be cut. Therefore, the idea of ​​expensive gravy boats on princely tables should be abandoned... But it is quite possible to imagine the sauce lying on stale bread, acting as a stand.

The fork “suffered” from the prejudices that existed in society: its shape earned it a reputation as a diabolical creation, and its Byzantine origin earned it a suspicious attitude. Therefore, she was able to “make her way” to the table only as a device for meat. It was only in the Baroque era that debates about the merits and demerits of the fork became fierce.

On the contrary, everyone had their own knife, even women wore it on their belt.

On the tables one could also see spoons, salt shakers, rock crystal glasses and drinking vessels - often richly decorated, gilded or even silver. However, the latter were not individual; even in rich houses they were shared with neighbors. Crockery and cutlery ordinary people were made of wood and clay. Many peasants had only one spoon in their house for the whole family, and if someone did not want to wait for it to reach him in a circle, he could use a piece of bread instead of this cutlery.

Table manners

Chicken legs and meatballs were thrown in all directions, dirty hands were wiped on shirts and trousers, they burped and farted to their heart's content, the food was torn into pieces and then swallowed without chewing...
This or roughly this is how we, having read the records of cunning innkeepers or their adventurer visitors, imagine the behavior of knights at the table today. In reality, everything was not so extravagant, although there were some curious moments that amazed us. Many satires, table manners, and descriptions of food customs reflect that morality did not always take a place at the table with its owner. For example, the prohibition on blowing your nose into a tablecloth would not be encountered so often if this bad habit were not very common.

How they cleared the table

There were no tables in their modern form (that is, when the tabletop is attached to the legs) in the Middle Ages. The table was built when there was a need for it: wooden stands were installed, and a wooden board was placed on them. That's why in the Middle Ages they didn't clear the table - they cleared the table...

Cook: honor and respect

Powerful medieval Europe highly valued its chefs. In Germany, since 1291, the chef was one of the four most important figures at court. In France, only noble people became high-ranking chefs. The position of chief winemaker of France was the third most important after the positions of chamberlain and chief equerry. Then came the bread baking manager, the chief cupbearer, the chef, the restaurant managers closest to the court, and only then the marshals and admirals.

As for the kitchen hierarchy - and there was a huge number (up to 800 people) of interdependent workers - the first place was given to the head of meat. A position characterized by honor and trust of the king, for no one was safe from poison. He had six people at his disposal who selected and prepared meat for the royal family every day. Teilevant, the famous cook of King Charles the Sixth, had 150 people under his command.

And in England, for example, at the court of Richard the Second there were 1,000 cooks and 300 footmen who served 10,000 people at the court every day. A dizzying figure, demonstrating that it was not so much about feeding as it was about demonstrating wealth.

Cookbooks of the Middle Ages

In the Middle Ages, along with spiritual literature, it was cookbooks that were most often and willingly copied.

Around 1345 to 1352, the earliest cookbook of this time was written, Buoch von guoter spise (Book of Good Food). The author is considered to be the notary of the Bishop of Würzburg, Michael de Leon, who, along with his duties of noting budget expenses, was collecting recipes.

Fifty years later appears "Alemannische Buchlein von guter Speise" (The Alemannic Book of Good Food), by master Hansen, the Württemberg cook. This was the first cookbook in the Middle Ages to bear the author's name. A collection of recipes by Master Eberhard, cook of Duke Heinrich III von Bayern-Landshut, appeared around 1495.
Around 1350, the French cookbook "Le Grand Cuisinier de toute Cuisine" was created, and in 1381 the English "Ancient Cookery" was created.

1390 - "The Forme of Cury", author - cook of King Richard II. As for Danish collections of recipes from the 13th century, it is worth mentioning Henrik Harpenstreng's Libellus de Arte Coquinaria.
1354 - Catalan "Libre de Sent Sovi" by an unknown author.

The most famous cookbook of the Middle Ages was created by the master Guillaume Tyrell, better known under his creative pseudonym Teylivent. He was the cook of King Charles the Sixth, and later even received the title. The book was written between 1373 and 1392, and published only a century later and included, along with well-known dishes, very original recipes that today a rare gourmet would dare to cook. Today it is believed that Teilivent was not the real author of the book, however, he did not just copy the recipes, but improved them and brought them into line with his era.

Based on materials from the publication of Paradoxik.