The endocrine system plays an extremely important role in our body. If the function of the internal secretion of one of the glands is disrupted, this causes certain changes in the others. The nervous and endocrine systems coordinate and regulate the functions of all other systems and organs and ensure the unity of the body. A person may experience damage to the nervous system due to endocrine pathology.

What endocrine pathologies cause damage to the nervous system?

Leads to neurological disorders in almost half of patients diabetes. The severity and frequency of such damage to the nervous system depend on the duration of the course, blood sugar levels, the frequency of decompensation and the type of diabetes. Vascular and metabolic disorders are of primary importance in the occurrence and development of the disease process in the body. Fructose and sorbitol have osmotic (leakage) activity. Their accumulation is accompanied by degenerative changes and swelling in the tissues. In addition, in diabetes, the metabolism of proteins, fats, phospholipids, water and electrolyte metabolism is noticeably impaired, and vitamin deficiency also develops. Damage to the nervous system includes a variety of psychopathic and neurotic changes that cause depression in patients. Polyneuropathy is typical. In the initial stages, it manifests itself as painful leg cramps (mainly at night), paresthesia (numbness). In the developed stage, pronounced trophic and autonomic disorders are characteristic, which predominate in the feet. Damage to the cranial nerves is also possible. Most often oculomotor and facial.

Hypothyroidism (or myxedema) can cause widespread damage to the nervous system with vascular and metabolic disorders. In this case, slowness of attention and thinking occurs, increased drowsiness and depression are observed. Less commonly, doctors diagnose cerebellar ataxia, which is caused by an atrophic process in the cerebellum, myopathic syndrome (pain on palpation and muscle movement, pseudohypertrophy of the calf muscles), myotonic syndrome (with strong squeezing of the hands, there is no muscle relaxation). Along with myxedema, 10% of patients develop mononeuropathies (especially carpal tunnel syndrome). These phenomena decrease (or completely disappear) with hormone replacement therapy.

Hyperthyroidism most often manifests itself in neurological practice as panic attacks, the occurrence (or increase in frequency) of migraine attacks, and psychotic disorders.

Hypoparathyroidism is accompanied by hyperphosphatemia and hypocalcemia. With this endocrine pathology in the human nervous system, symptoms of autonomic polyneuropathy and an increase in the muscular-nervous system are noted. There is a decrease in cognitive (brain) functions: memory loss, inappropriate behavior, speech disorders. Epileptic seizures may also occur.

Hyperparathyroidism due to hypophosphatemia and hypercalcemia also leads to damage to the nervous system. Such patients experience severe weakness, decreased memory, and increased muscle fatigue.

The coherence of the whole organism depends on how the endocrine and nervous systems interact. Having a complex structure, the human body achieves such harmony thanks to the inextricable relationship between the nervous and endocrine systems. The connecting links in this tandem are the hypothalamus and pituitary gland.

General characteristics of the nervous and endocrine systems

The inextricable relationship between the endocrine and nervous systems (NS) ensures the following vital processes:

• ability to reproduce;
• human growth and development;
• ability to adapt to changing external conditions;
• constancy and stability of the internal environment of the human body.

The structure of the nervous system includes the spinal cord and brain, as well as peripheral parts, including autonomic, sensory and motor neurons. They have special processes that act on target cells. Signals in the form of electrical impulses are transmitted along nerve tissues.

The main element of the endocrine system was the pituitary gland, and it also includes:

• pineal;
• thyroid;
• thymus and pancreas;
• adrenal glands;
• kidneys;
• ovaries and testicles.

The organs of the endocrine system produce special chemical compounds - hormones. These are substances that regulate many vital functions in the body. It is through them that the effect on the body occurs. Hormones, released into the bloodstream, attach to target cells. The interaction of the nervous and endocrine systems ensures the normal functioning of the body and form a single neuroendocrine regulation.

Hormones are regulators of the activity of body cells. They influence physical mobility and thinking, height and body features, tone of voice, behavior, sexual desire and much more. The endocrine system ensures that a person adapts to various changes in the external environment.

What role does the hypothalamus play in neuroregulation? is associated with different parts of the nervous system and belongs to the elements of the diencephalon. This communication occurs through afferent pathways.

The hypothalamus receives signals from the spinal and midbrain, the basal ganglia and thalamus, and some parts of the cerebral hemispheres. The hypothalamus receives information from all parts of the body through internal and external receptors. These signals and impulses affect the endocrine system through the pituitary gland.

Functions of the nervous system

The nervous system, being a complex anatomical formation, ensures human adaptation to the constantly changing conditions of the outside world. The structure of the National Assembly includes:

• nerves;
• spinal cord and brain;
• nerve plexuses and nodes.

The NS quickly responds to all kinds of changes by sending electronic signals. This is how the work of various organs is corrected. By regulating the functioning of the endocrine system, it helps maintain homeostasis.

The main functions of the NS are as follows:

• transferring all information about the functioning of the body to the brain;
• coordination and regulation of conscious body movements;
• perception of information about the state of the body in the external environment;
• coordinates heart rate, blood pressure, body temperature and breathing.

The main purpose of the NS is to perform autonomic and somatic functions. The autonomic component has sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions.

The sympathetic is responsible for the response to stress and prepares the body for a dangerous situation. When this department works, breathing and heart rate increase, digestion stops or slows down, sweating increases and the pupils dilate.

The parasympathetic department of the nervous system, on the contrary, is designed to calm the body. When it is activated, breathing and heartbeat slow down, digestion resumes, excessive sweating stops and the pupils return to normal.

The autonomic nervous system is designed to regulate the functioning of blood and lymphatic vessels. It provides:

• expansion and narrowing of the lumen of capillaries and arteries;
• normal pulse;
• contraction of smooth muscles of internal organs.

In addition, its tasks include the production of special hormones by the endocrine and exocrine glands. It also regulates metabolic processes occurring in the body. The autonomic system is autonomous and independent of the somatic system, which, in turn, is responsible for the perception of various stimuli and the reaction to them.

The functioning of the sensory organs and skeletal muscles is under the control of the somatic part of the NS. The control center is located in the brain, where information from various senses is received. Behavior change and adaptation to the social environment are also under the control of the somatic part of the nervous system.

Nervous system and adrenal glands

How the nervous system regulates the functioning of the endocrine system can be traced through the functioning of the adrenal glands. They are an important part of the body's endocrine system and in their structure have a cortical and medulla layer.

The adrenal cortex performs the functions of the pancreas, and the medulla is a kind of transitional element between the endocrine and nervous systems. It is here that the so-called catecholamines are produced, which include adrenaline. They ensure the survival of the body in difficult conditions.

In addition, these hormones perform a number of other important functions, in particular, thanks to them the following occurs:

• increased heart rate;
• dilated pupils;
• increased sweating;
• increased vascular tone;
• expansion of the lumen of the bronchi;

• increase in blood pressure;
• suppression of gastrointestinal motility;
• increased myocardial contractility;
• decreased production of secretion from the digestive glands.

The direct connection between the adrenal glands and the nervous system can be seen in the following: irritation of the nervous system causes stimulation of the production of adrenaline and norepinephrine. In addition, the tissues of the adrenal medulla are formed from the rudiments, which also underlie the sympathetic nervous system. Therefore, their further functioning resembles the work of this part of the central nervous system.

The adrenal medulla reacts to the following factors:

• pain;
• skin irritation;
• muscle work;
• hypothermia;

• powerful emotions;
• mental stress;
• decrease in blood sugar.

How does interaction happen?

The pituitary gland, without having a direct connection with the external world of the body, receives information signaling what changes are occurring in the body. The body receives this information through the senses and central nervous system.

The pituitary gland is a key element of the endocrine system. It obeys the hypothalamus, which coordinates the entire autonomic system. The activity of some parts of the brain, as well as internal organs, is also under its control. The hypothalamus regulates:

• heart rate;
• Body temperature;
• protein, fat and carbohydrate metabolism;

• amount of mineral salts;
• volume of water in tissues and blood.

The activity of the hypothalamus is carried out on the basis of nerve connections and blood vessels. It is through them that the pituitary gland is controlled. Nerve impulses coming from the brain are converted by the hypothalamus into endocrine stimuli. They are strengthened or weakened under the influence of humoral signals, which, in turn, enter the hypothalamus from the glands that are subordinate to it.

Through the pituitary gland, blood enters the hypothalamus and is saturated there with special neurohormones. These substances, which are of peptide nature, are part of protein molecules. There are 7 such neurohormones, otherwise they are called liberins. Their main purpose is to synthesize tropic hormones that affect many vital functions of the body. These paths perform specific functions. These include, but are not limited to:

• stimulation of immune activity;
• regulation of lipid metabolism;
• increased sensitivity of the gonads;

• stimulation of parental instinct;
• suspension and differentiation of cells;
• converting short-term memory into long-term memory.

Along with leberins, hormones are released - suppressive statins. Their function is to suppress the production of tropic hormones. These include somatostatin, prolactostatin and melanostatin. The endocrine system operates on the principle of feedback.

If any endocrine gland produces hormones in excess, then the synthesis of its own hormones, which regulate the functioning of this gland, slows down.

Conversely, a lack of appropriate hormones causes increased production. This complex interaction process has been processed throughout evolution, so it is very reliable. But when a malfunction occurs in it, the entire chain of connections reacts, which is expressed in the development of endocrine pathologies.

The human body consists of cells connected into tissues and systems - all of this as a whole represents a single supersystem of the body. The myriad of cellular elements would not be able to work as a single unit if the body did not have a complex regulatory mechanism. The nervous system and the endocrine gland system play a special role in regulation. The nature of the processes occurring in the central nervous system is largely determined by the state of endocrine regulation. Thus, androgens and estrogens form the sexual instinct and many behavioral reactions. It is obvious that neurons, just like other cells in our body, are under the control of the humoral regulatory system. The nervous system, which is evolutionarily later, has both control and subordinate connections with the endocrine system. These two regulatory systems complement each other and form a functionally unified mechanism, which ensures high efficiency of neurohumoral regulation and places it at the head of systems that coordinate all life processes in a multicellular organism. Regulation of the constancy of the internal environment of the body, which occurs on the principle of feedback, is very effective in maintaining homeostasis, but cannot fulfill all the tasks of adaptation of the body. For example, the adrenal cortex produces steroid hormones in response to hunger, illness, emotional arousal, etc. In order for the endocrine system to “respond” to light, sounds, smells, emotions, etc., there must be a connection between the endocrine glands and the nervous system .

1. 1 a brief description of systems

The autonomic nervous system permeates our entire body like a fine web. It has two branches: excitation and inhibition. The sympathetic nervous system is the arousal part, it puts us in a state of readiness to face a challenge or danger. Nerve endings release mediators that stimulate the adrenal glands to release strong hormones - adrenaline and norepinephrine. They in turn increase the heart rate and breathing rate, and affect the digestion process by releasing acid in the stomach. At the same time, a sucking sensation occurs in the pit of the stomach. Parasympathetic nerve endings release other neurotransmitters that reduce heart rate and respiratory rate. Parasympathetic responses are relaxation and restoration of balance.

The endocrine system of the human body combines endocrine glands, small in size and different in structure and function, that are part of the endocrine system. These are the pituitary gland with its independently functioning anterior and posterior lobes, the gonads, the thyroid and parathyroid glands, the adrenal cortex and medulla, the islet cells of the pancreas and the secretory cells lining the intestinal tract. Taken together, they weigh no more than 100 grams, and the amount of hormones they produce can be calculated in billions of a gram. And yet, the sphere of influence of hormones is extremely large. They have a direct effect on the growth and development of the body, on all types of metabolism, and on puberty. There are no direct anatomical connections between the endocrine glands, but there is an interdependence of the functions of one gland on the others. The endocrine system of a healthy person can be compared to a well-played orchestra, in which each gland confidently and subtly leads its part. And the main supreme endocrine gland, the pituitary gland, acts as a conductor. The anterior lobe of the pituitary gland releases six tropic hormones into the blood: somatotropic, adrenocorticotropic, thyroid-stimulating, prolactin, follicle-stimulating and luteinizing hormones - they direct and regulate the activity of other endocrine glands.

1. 2 Interaction between the endocrine and nervous systems

The pituitary gland can receive signals about what is happening in the body, but it has no direct connection with the external environment. Meanwhile, in order for environmental factors not to constantly disrupt the vital functions of the body, the body must adapt to changing external conditions. The body learns about external influences through the senses, which transmit the received information to the central nervous system. Being the supreme gland of the endocrine system, the pituitary gland itself is subordinate to the central nervous system and in particular the hypothalamus. This higher vegetative center constantly coordinates and regulates the activity of various parts of the brain and all internal organs. Heart rate, tone of blood vessels, body temperature, amount of water in the blood and tissues, accumulation or consumption of proteins, fats, carbohydrates, mineral salts - in a word, the existence of our body, the constancy of its internal environment is under the control of the hypothalamus. Most of the neural and humoral regulatory pathways converge at the level of the hypothalamus, and thanks to this, a single neuroendocrine regulatory system is formed in the body. The axons of neurons located in the cerebral cortex and subcortical formations approach the cells of the hypothalamus. These axons secrete various neurotransmitters that have both activating and inhibitory effects on the secretory activity of the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus “transforms” nerve impulses coming from the brain into endocrine stimuli, which can be strengthened or weakened depending on the humoral signals entering the hypothalamus from the glands and tissues subordinate to it.

and is enriched there with hypothalamic neurohormones. Neurohormones are substances of peptide nature, which are parts of protein molecules. To date, seven neurohormones have been discovered, the so-called liberins (that is, liberators), which stimulate the synthesis of tropic hormones in the pituitary gland. And three neurohormones - prolactostatin, melanostatin and somatostatin - on the contrary, inhibit their production. Neurohormones also include vasopressin and oxytocin. Oxytocin stimulates the contraction of the smooth muscles of the uterus during childbirth and the production of milk by the mammary glands. Vasopressin is actively involved in the regulation of the transport of water and salts through cell membranes; under its influence, the lumen of blood vessels decreases and, consequently, blood pressure increases. Because this hormone has the ability to retain water in the body, it is often called antidiuretic hormone (ADH). The main point of application of ADH is the renal tubules, where it stimulates the reabsorption of water from primary urine into the blood. Neurohormones are produced by the nerve cells of the nuclei of the hypothalamus, and then transported along their own axons (nerve processes) to the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland, and from here these hormones enter the blood, having a complex effect on the body's systems.

cell differentiation processes, increases the sensitivity of the gonads to gonadotropins, stimulates the parental instinct. Corticotropin is not only a stimulator of sterdogenesis but also an activator of lipolysis in adipose tissue, as well as an important participant in the process of converting short-term memory into long-term memory in the brain. Growth hormone can stimulate the activity of the immune system, the metabolism of lipids, sugars, etc. Also, some hormones of the hypothalamus and pituitary gland can be formed not only in these tissues. For example, somatostatin (a hypothalamic hormone that inhibits the formation and secretion of growth hormone) is also found in the pancreas, where it suppresses the secretion of insulin and glucagon. Some substances act in both systems; they can be both hormones (i.e., products of endocrine glands) and transmitters (products of certain neurons). This dual role is played by norepinephrine, somatostatin, vasopressin and oxytocin, as well as intestinal diffuse nervous system transmitters such as cholecystokinin and vasoactive intestinal polypeptide.

However, one should not think that the hypothalamus and pituitary gland only give orders, sending “guiding” hormones down the chain. They themselves sensitively analyze signals coming from the periphery, from the endocrine glands. The activity of the endocrine system is carried out on the basis of the universal principle of feedback. An excess of hormones of one or another endocrine gland inhibits the release of a specific pituitary hormone responsible for the functioning of this gland, and a deficiency prompts the pituitary gland to increase the production of the corresponding triple hormone. The mechanism of interaction between the neurohormones of the hypothalamus, the triple hormones of the pituitary gland and the hormones of the peripheral endocrine glands in a healthy body has been worked out over a long evolutionary development and is very reliable. However, a failure in one link of this complex chain is enough for a violation of quantitative, and sometimes qualitative, relationships in the whole system to occur, leading to various endocrine diseases.

CHAPTER 2. BASIC FUNCTIONS OF THE THALAMUS

2. 1 Brief anatomy

The bulk of the diencephalon (20 g) is the thalamus. The paired organ is ovoid in shape, the anterior part of which is pointed (anterior tubercle), and the posterior part is widened (cushion) hanging over the geniculate bodies. The left and right thalami are connected by the interthalamic commissure. The gray matter of the thalamus is divided by lamellae of white matter into anterior, medial and lateral parts. When talking about the thalamus, they also include the metathalamus (geniculate body), which belongs to the thalamic region. The thalamus is the most developed in humans. The thalamus, the visual thalamus, is a nuclear complex in which the processing and integration of almost all signals going to the cerebral cortex from the spinal cord, midbrain, cerebellum, and basal ganglia of the brain occurs.

ganglia of the brain. In the nuclei of the thalamus, information coming from extero-, proprioceptors and interoreceptors is switched and thalamocortical pathways begin. Considering that the geniculate bodies are the subcortical centers of vision and hearing, and the frenulum node and the anterior visual nucleus are involved in the analysis of olfactory signals, it can be argued that the visual thalamus as a whole is a subcortical “station” for all types of sensitivity. Here, irritations from the external and internal environment are integrated and then enter the cerebral cortex.

The visual thalamus is the center of organization and implementation of instincts, drives, and emotions. The ability to receive information about the state of many body systems allows the thalamus to participate in the regulation and determination of the functional state of the body. In general (this is confirmed by the presence of about 120 multifunctional nuclei in the thalamus).

2. 3 Functions of the thalamic nuclei

lobe of the cortex. Lateral - in the parietal, temporal, occipital lobes of the cortex. The nuclei of the thalamus are functionally divided into specific, nonspecific and associative according to the nature of the pathways entering and exiting them.

2. 3. 1 Specific sensory and non-sensory nuclei

Specific nuclei include the anterior ventral, medial, ventrolateral, postlateral, postmedial, lateral and medial geniculate bodies. The latter belong to the subcortical centers of vision and hearing, respectively. The main functional unit of specific thalamic nuclei are “relay” neurons, which have few dendrites and a long axon; their function is to switch information going to the cerebral cortex from skin, muscle and other receptors.

In turn, specific (relay) nuclei are divided into sensory and non-sensory. From specific sensory nuclei, information about the nature of sensory stimuli arrives in strictly defined areas of the III-IV layers of the cerebral cortex. Dysfunction of specific nuclei leads to loss of specific types of sensitivity, since the nuclei of the thalamus, like the cerebral cortex, have a somatotopic localization. Individual neurons of specific thalamic nuclei are excited by receptors only of their own type. Signals from receptors in the skin, eyes, ear, and muscular system go to specific nuclei of the thalamus. Signals from the interoceptors of the projection zones of the vagus and celiac nerves and the hypothalamus also converge here. The lateral geniculate body has direct efferent connections with the occipital lobe of the cerebral cortex and afferent connections with the retina and the anterior colliculus. Neurons of the lateral geniculate bodies react differently to color stimulation, turning on and off the light, i.e., they can perform a detector function. The medial geniculate body receives afferent impulses from the lateral lemniscus and from the inferior colliculi. Efferent pathways from the medial geniculate bodies go to the temporal zone of the cerebral cortex, reaching there the primary auditory area of ​​the cortex.

nuclei are projected into the limbic cortex, from where axonal connections go to the hippocampus and again to the hypothalamus, resulting in the formation of a neural circle, the movement of excitation along which ensures the formation of emotions (“Peipetz’s emotional ring”). In this regard, the anterior nuclei of the thalamus are considered part of the limbic system. The ventral nuclei are involved in the regulation of movement, thus performing a motor function. In these nuclei, impulses from the basal ganglia, the dentate nucleus of the cerebellum, and the red nucleus of the midbrain switch, which is then projected into the motor and premotor cortex. Through these nuclei of the thalamus, complex motor programs formed in the cerebellum and basal ganglia are transmitted to the motor cortex.

2. 3. 2 Nonspecific nuclei

neurons and are functionally considered as a derivative of the reticular formation of the brain stem. The neurons of these nuclei form their connections according to the reticular type. Their axons rise into the cerebral cortex and contact all its layers, forming diffuse connections. Nonspecific nuclei receive connections from the reticular formation of the brainstem, hypothalamus, limbic system, basal ganglia, and specific nuclei of the thalamus. Thanks to these connections, the nonspecific nuclei of the thalamus act as an intermediary between the brain stem and cerebellum, on the one hand, and the neocortex, limbic system and basal ganglia, on the other hand, uniting them into a single functional complex.

2. 3. 3 Associative cores

multipolar, bipolar triprocess neurons, i.e. neurons capable of performing polysensory functions. A number of neurons change activity only with simultaneous complex stimulation. Pillow phenomena), speech and visual functions (integration of a word with a visual image), as well as in the perception of a “body diagram”. receives impulses from the hypothalamus, amygdala, hippocampus, thalamic nuclei, and central gray matter of the brainstem. The projection of this nucleus extends to the associative frontal and limbic cortex. It is involved in the formation of emotional and behavioral motor activity. Lateral nuclei receive visual and auditory impulses from the geniculate bodies and somatosensory impulses from the ventral nucleus.

Motor reactions are integrated in the thalamus with the autonomic processes that provide these movements.

CHAPTER 3. COMPOSITION OF THE LIMBIC SYSTEM AND ITS PURPOSE

The structures of the limbic system include 3 complexes. The first complex is the ancient cortex, olfactory bulbs, olfactory tubercle, and septum pellucidum. The second complex of structures of the limbic system is the old cortex, which includes the hippocampus, dentate fascia, and cingulate gyrus. The third complex of the limbic system is the structures of the insular cortex, the parahippocampal gyrus. And subcortical structures: amygdala, nuclei of the septum pellucidum, anterior thalamic nucleus, mammillary bodies. The hippocampus and other structures of the limbic system are surrounded by the cingulate gyrus. Near it is a vault - a system of fibers running in both directions; it follows the curve of the cingulate gyrus and connects the hippocampus to the hypothalamus. All the numerous formations of the limbic cortex cover the base of the forebrain in a ring-like manner and are a kind of boundary between the neocortex and the brainstem.

3. 2 Morphofunctional organization of the system

represents a functional association of brain structures involved in the organization of emotional and motivational behavior, such as food, sexual, and defensive instincts. This system is involved in organizing the sleep-wake cycle.

circulating the same excitation in the system and thereby maintaining a single state in it and imposing this state on other brain systems. Currently, the connections between brain structures that organize circles that have their own functional specificity are well known. These include the Peipetz circle (hippocampus - mammillary bodies - anterior nuclei of the thalamus - cingulate cortex - parahippocampal gyrus - hippocampus). This circle is related to memory and learning processes.

Another circle (amygdala - mammillary bodies of the hypothalamus - limbic region of the midbrain - amygdala) regulates aggressive-defensive, eating and sexual forms of behavior. It is believed that figurative (iconic) memory is formed by the cortico-limbic-thalamo-cortical circle. Circles of different functional purposes connect the limbic system with many structures of the central nervous system, which allows the latter to implement functions, the specifics of which are determined by the included additional structure. For example, the inclusion of the caudate nucleus in one of the circles of the limbic system determines its participation in the organization of inhibitory processes of higher nervous activity.

A large number of connections in the limbic system and the peculiar circular interaction of its structures create favorable conditions for the reverberation of excitation in short and long circles. This, on the one hand, ensures the functional interaction of parts of the limbic system, on the other, creates conditions for memorization.

3. 3 Functions of the limbic system

The abundance of connections between the limbic system and the structures of the central nervous system makes it difficult to identify brain functions in which it does not participate. Thus, the limbic system is related to regulating the level of reaction of the autonomous, somatic systems during emotional and motivational activity, regulating the level of attention, perception, and reproduction of emotionally significant information. The limbic system determines the choice and implementation of adaptive forms of behavior, the dynamics of innate forms of behavior, the maintenance of homeostasis, and generative processes. Finally, it ensures the creation of an emotional background, the formation and implementation of processes of higher nervous activity. It should be noted that the ancient and old cortex of the limbic system is directly related to the olfactory function. In turn, the olfactory analyzer, as the most ancient of the analyzers, is a nonspecific activator of all types of activity of the cerebral cortex. Some authors call the limbic system the visceral brain, i.e., a structure of the central nervous system involved in regulating the activity of internal organs.

This function is carried out primarily through the activity of the hypothalamus, which is the diencephalic link of the limbic system. The close efferent connections of the system with internal organs are evidenced by various changes in their functions upon irritation of limbic structures, especially the tonsils. In this case, the effects have a different sign in the form of activation or inhibition of visceral functions. There is an increase or decrease in heart rate, motility and secretion of the stomach and intestines, and the secretion of various hormones by the adenohypophysis (adenocorticotropins and gonadotropins).

3. 3. 2 Formation of emotions

Emotions – these are experiences that reflect a person’s subjective attitude towards objects of the external world and the results of his own activities. In turn, emotions are a subjective component of motivations - states that trigger and implement behavior aimed at satisfying emerging needs. Through the mechanism of emotions, the limbic system improves the body's adaptation to changing environmental conditions. The hypothalamus is a critical area for the emergence of emotions. In the structure of emotions, emotional experiences themselves and their peripheral (vegetative and somatic) manifestations are distinguished. These components of emotions can have relative independence. Severe subjective experiences may be accompanied by minor peripheral manifestations and vice versa. The hypothalamus is the structure responsible primarily for autonomic manifestations of emotions. In addition to the hypothalamus, the structures of the limbic system most closely associated with emotions include the cingulate gyrus and the amygdala.

with the provision of defensive behavior, vegetative, motor, emotional reactions, motivation of conditioned reflex behavior. The amygdala reacts with many of its nuclei to visual, auditory, interoceptive, olfactory, and skin irritations, and all these irritations cause a change in the activity of any of the amygdala nuclei, i.e., the amygdala nuclei are polysensory. Irritation of the nuclei of the amygdala creates a pronounced parasympathetic effect on the activity of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems. Leads to a decrease (rarely to an increase) in blood pressure, a slowdown in heart rate, disruption of the conduction of excitation through the conduction system of the heart, the occurrence of arrhythmia and extrasystole. In this case, vascular tone may not change. Irritation of the tonsil nuclei causes respiratory depression and sometimes a cough reaction. Conditions such as autism, depression, post-traumatic shock and phobias are thought to be associated with abnormal functioning of the amygdala. The cingulate gyrus has numerous connections with the neocortex and with stem centers. And plays the role of the main integrator of various brain systems that form emotions. Its functions are providing attention, feeling pain, noting an error, transmitting signals from the respiratory and cardiovascular systems. The ventral frontal cortex has strong connections with the amygdala. Damage to the cortex causes severe disturbances in human emotions, characterized by the emergence of emotional dullness and disinhibition of emotions associated with the satisfaction of biological needs.

3. 3. 3 Formation of memory and implementation of learning

This function is related to the main Peipets circle. With one-time training, the amygdala plays a large role due to its ability to induce strong negative emotions, promoting the rapid and strong formation of a temporary connection. Among the structures of the limbic system responsible for memory and learning, the hippocampus and the associated posterior zones of the frontal cortex play an important role. Their activity is absolutely necessary for memory consolidation - the transition of short-term memory to long-term memory.

The nervous and endocrine systems modulate the functions of the immune system through neurotransmitters, neuropeptides, and hormones, and the immune system interacts with the neuroendocrine system through cytokines, immunopeptides, and immunotransmitters. There is neurohormonal regulation of the immune response and functions of the immune system, mediated by the action of hormones and neuropeptides directly on immunocompetent cells or through the regulation of cytokine production (Fig. 2). Substances penetrate through axonal transport into the tissues they innervate and influence the processes of immunogenesis, and vice versa, signals (cytokines secreted by immunocompetent cells) are received from the immune system, which accelerate or slow down axonal transport, depending on the chemical nature of the influencing factor.

The nervous, endocrine and immune systems have much in common in their structure. All three systems act in concert, complementing and duplicating each other, significantly increasing the reliability of regulation of functions. They are closely interconnected and have a large number of cross paths. There is a certain parallel between lymphoid accumulations in various organs and tissues and the ganglia of the autonomic nervous system.

Stress and the immune system.

Experiments on animals and clinical observations indicate that stress and some mental disorders lead to a sharp depression of almost all parts of the body's immune system.

Most lymphoid tissues have direct sympathetic innervation of both the blood vessels passing through the lymphoid tissue and the lymphocytes themselves. The autonomic nervous system directly innervates the parenchymal tissues of the thymus, spleen, lymph nodes, appendix and bone marrow.

The effect of pharmacological drugs on postganglionic adrenergic systems leads to modulation of the immune system. Stress, on the contrary, leads to desensitization of β-adrenergic receptors.

Norepinephrine and adrenaline act on adrenergic receptors - AMP - protein kinase A suppresses the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-12, tumor necrosis factor b (TNFa), interferon g (IFNg) by antigen-presenting cells and T-helper type 1 and stimulate the formation of anti-inflammatory cytokines , such as IL-10 and transforming growth factor-β (TFRβ).

Rice. 2. Two mechanisms of interference of immune processes in the activity of the nervous and endocrine systems: A - glucocorticoid Feedback, inhibition of the synthesis of interleukin-1 and other lymphokines, B - autoantibodies to hormones and their receptors. Tx - T-helper, MF - macrophage

However, under certain conditions, catecholamines are able to limit the local immune response by inducing the formation of IL-1, TNFa and IL-8, providing protection to the body from the harmful effects of proinflammatory cytokines and other products of activated macrophages. When the sympathetic nervous system interacts with macrophages, neuropeptide Y acts as a cotransmitter of the signal from norepinephrine to macrophages. By blocking α-adrenergic receptors, it supports the stimulating effect of endogenous norepinephrine through β-adrenergic receptors.

Opioid peptides- one of the intermediaries between the central nervous system and the immune system. They are able to influence almost all immunological processes. In this regard, it has been suggested that opioid peptides indirectly modulate the secretion of pituitary hormones and thus affect the immune system.

Neurotransmitters and the immune system.

However, the relationship between the nervous and immune systems is not limited to the regulatory influence of the former on the latter. IN last years A sufficient amount of data has accumulated on the synthesis and secretion of neurotransmitters by cells of the immune system.

Human peripheral blood T lymphocytes contain L-dopa and norepinephrine, while B cells contain only L-dopa.

Lymphocytes in vitro are capable of synthesizing norepinephrine from both L-tyrosine and L-dopa added to the culture medium in concentrations corresponding to the content in venous blood (5-10 -5 and 10 -8 mol, respectively), while D- dopa does not affect the intracellular content of norepinephrine. Consequently, human T lymphocytes are capable of synthesizing catecholamines from their normal precursors in physiological concentrations.

The norepinephrine/epinephrine ratio in peripheral blood lymphocytes is similar to that in plasma. There is a clear correlation between the amount of norepinephrine and adrenaline in lymphocytes, on the one hand, and cyclic AMP in them, on the other, both normally and when stimulated with isoproterenol.

Thymus gland (thymus).

The thymus gland plays an important role in the interaction of the immune system with the nervous and endocrine systems. A number of arguments are given in favor of this conclusion:

Thymic insufficiency not only slows down the formation of the immune system, but also leads to disruption of the embryonic development of the anterior pituitary gland;

Binding of hormones synthesized in acidophilic cells of the pituitary gland with receptors of thymus epithelial cells (TECs) increases their release of thymic peptides in vitro;

An increase in the concentration of glucocorticoids in the blood under stress causes atrophy of the thymic cortex due to the doubling of thymocytes undergoing apoptosis;

The thymic parenchyma is innervated by branches of the autonomic nervous system; the effect of acetylcholine on acetylcholine receptors of thymic epithelial cells increases protein-synthetic activity associated with the formation of thymic hormones.

Thymic proteins are a heterogeneous family of polypeptide hormones that not only have a regulatory effect on both the immune and endocrine systems, but are also under the control of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal system and other endocrine glands. Thus, the production of thymulin by the thymus gland is regulated by a number of hormones, including prolactin, growth hormone and thyroid hormones. In turn, proteins isolated from the thymus regulate the secretion of hormones by the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal system and can directly affect the target glands of this system and gonadal tissue.

Regulation of the immune system.

The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal system is a powerful mechanism for regulating the immune system. Corticotropin-releasing factor, ACTH, b-melanocyte-stimulating hormone, b-endorphin - immunomodulators affecting both directly lymphoid cells and through immunoregulatory hormones (glucocorticoids) and the nervous system.

The immune system sends signals to the neuroendocrine system through cytokines, the concentration of which in the blood reaches significant values ​​during immune (inflammatory) reactions. IL-1, IL-6 and TNFa are the main cytokines that cause profound neuroendocrine and metabolic changes in many organs and tissues.

Corticotropin-releasing factor acts as the main coordinator of reactions and is responsible for the activation of the ACTH-adrenal axis, the increase in temperature and the central nervous system reactions that determine sympathetic effects. An increase in ACTH secretion leads to an increase in the production of glucocorticoids and a-melanocyte-stimulating hormone - antagonists of cytokines and antipyretic hormones. The reaction of the sympathoadrenal system is associated with the accumulation of catecholamines in tissues.

The immune and endocrine systems cross-talk using similar or identical ligands and receptors. Thus, cytokines and thymic hormones modulate the function of the hypothalamic-pituitary system.

* Interleukin (IL-l) directly regulates the production of corticotropin-releasing factor. Thymulin, through adrenoglomerulotropin and the activity of hypothalamic neurons and pituitary cells, increases the production of luteinizing hormone.

* Prolactin, acting on lymphocyte receptors, activates the synthesis and secretion of cytokines by cells. It acts on normal killer cells and induces their differentiation into prolactin-activated killer cells.

* Prolactin and growth hormone stimulate leukopoiesis (including lymphopoiesis).

Cells of the hypothalamus and pituitary gland can produce cytokines such as IL-1, IL-2, IL-6, interferon g, transforming germ factor β and others. Accordingly, hormones including growth hormone, prolactin, luteinizing hormone, oxytocin, vasopressin and somatostatin are produced in the thymus gland. Receptors for various cytokines and hormones have been identified both in the thymus and in the hypothalamic-pituitary axis.

The possible commonality of the regulatory mechanisms of the central nervous system, neuroendocrine and immunological systems puts forward a new aspect of homeostatic control of many pathological conditions (Fig. 3, 4). In maintaining homeostasis under the influence of various extreme factors on the body, all three systems act as a single whole, complementing each other. But, depending on the nature of the impact, one of them becomes leading in the regulation of adaptive and compensatory reactions.

Rice. 3. Interaction of the nervous, endocrine and immune systems in the regulation of physiological functions of the body

Many functions of the immune system are provided by redundant mechanisms, which are associated with additional reserve capabilities for protecting the body. The protective function of phagocytosis is duplicated by granulocytes and monocytes/macrophages. Antibodies, the complement system, and the cytokine g-interferon have the ability to enhance phagocytosis.

The cytotoxic effect against target cells infected with a virus or malignantly transformed is duplicated by natural killer cells and cytotoxic T lymphocytes (Fig. 5). In antiviral and antitumor immunity, protective effector cells can serve either natural killer cells or cytotoxic T lymphocytes.

Rice. 4. Interaction of the immune system and regulatory mechanisms with factors environment under conditions of extreme influences

Rice. 5. Duplication of functions in the immune system provides its reserve capabilities

During the development of inflammation, several synergistic cytokines duplicate each other's functions, which made it possible to combine them into the group of proinflammatory cytokines (interleukins 1, 6, 8, 12 and TNFa). The final stage of inflammation involves other cytokines that duplicate each other’s effects. They serve as antagonists of pro-inflammatory cytokines and are called anti-inflammatory (interleukins 4, 10, 13 and transforming growth factor-B). Cytokines produced by Th2 (interleukins 4, 10, 13, transforming growth factor-B) are antagonistic to cytokines produced by Th2 (interferon g, TNFa).

Ontogenetic changes in the immune system.

In the processes of ontogenesis, the immune system undergoes gradual development and maturation: relatively slow in the embryonic period, it accelerates sharply after the birth of a child due to the entry into the body of a large number of foreign antigens. However, most defense mechanisms carry immaturity throughout childhood. Neurohormonal regulation of the functions of the immune system begins to clearly manifest itself during puberty. In adulthood, the immune system is characterized by the greatest ability to adapt when a person encounters changed and unfavorable environmental conditions. The aging of the body is accompanied by various manifestations of acquired insufficiency of the immune system.

Based on a huge amount of factual material, today we can talk about the existence of a unified regulatory system of the body, uniting the nervous, immune and endocrine systems (Fig. 17).
According to some scientists, immunity is a disseminated mobile brain.
The immune system, like the central nervous system, is capable of recognizing, remembering and retrieving information from memory. The carriers of neurological memory functions are neurons of the analyzer and limbic systems of the brain. The carriers of the immunological memory function are certain subpopulations of T- and B-lymphocytes, called memory lymphocytes.
The immune system recognizes external and internal antigenic signals of different nature, remembers and transmits information through

Rice. 17. Neuroimmunohormonal interactions (according to Play fair, 1998 in our modification)

blood flow via cytokines into the central nervous system. The latter, in turn, having processed the signal, has a regulatory effect on the immune system with the help of neuropeptides and hormones of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis.
Currently, the mechanisms of neuroimmune interactions at the level of the receptor apparatus of cell membranes have been revealed. Receptors for mediators - beta-en-
dorphin, metenkephalin, protein P, adrenergic substances. It has been established that immunocompetent cells are capable of producing corticotropin, endorphin, and enkephalin. The possibility of the action of immune mediators - interleukins (IL-1, IL-2 and IL-6), interferons, tumor necrosis factor (TNF) - on neuroglial cells and neurons has been proven. Under the influence of IL-1 and TNF, the secretion of corticotropin by pituitary cells increases. In turn, neurons are capable of producing IL-2 and IL-6 (see Fig. 17).
It has been established that the membranes of neurons and lymphocytes are equipped with the same receptors for corticotropin, vasopressin and beta-endorphin. It is postulated that in this way, with the help of common cellular receptors and soluble hormones, neutropeptides and cytokines, the immune and central nervous systems exchange information with each other.
It has been proven that in the syndrome of cytokine overproduction, excessive secretion of IL-1, interferon and TNF by macrophages is the cause of depressive states, which is accompanied by muscle weakness, prolonged low-grade fever, pancytopenia, and hepatosplenomegaly. This is confirmed by the following arguments: 1) the development of depression in people who are administered cytokines for therapeutic purposes; 2) changes in hormonal status under the influence of IL-1, leading to depression; 3) frequent association with depression of diseases accompanied by activation of macrophages (ischemia, rheumatoid arthritis, etc.);

1. a higher incidence of depression in women due to the fact that estrogens increase the secretion of IL-1 by macrophages.

The development of depression leads to a decrease in NK cell function against the background of a sharp increase in the production of corticosterone and cortisol. Under conditions of prolonged stress, the function of the immune system is suppressed under the influence of glycocorticoids and sex hormones. Adrenaline and norepinephrine suppress the migration of leukocytes and the activity of lymphocytes. In addition, lymphocytes on their membrane also have receptors for such hormones." "like insulin, thyroxine and somatotropin. The latter is also capable of modulating the function of T and B lymphocytes.
It is known that on the membrane of T-lymphocytes and neurons there is a common antigen Th-1, which once again indicates the commonality of these systems. Interesting experiments were carried out. Chicks were conditionally trained not to peck red pellets. After this, the trained birds were given monoclonal antibodies to the Tx-1 antigen of T lymphocytes. As a result, the chickens developed amnesia, strictly dependent on the dose of antibodies. Birds began to peck at pellets of all colors. The authors concluded that T lymphocytes take part in the process of memory formation.

The idea of ​​the inextricable unity of the nervous, endocrine and immune systems, as well as neurological and immunological memory, was strengthened by data on the wide distribution of neuropeptides outside the brain. Currently, more than 20 neuropeptites identified in the blood and lymph have been described. Among them are neurotensin, vasoactive intestinal neuropeptide (substance P), delta sleep peptide, enkephalins, endorphins (endogenous opioids), etc. It is believed that neuropeptides belong to important role in the integrative activity of the nervous, endocrine and immune systems due to the presence of identical receptors on their cells, through which the relationship occurs.
Modern life is characterized by stress and global environmental pollution, which, affecting the psychoneuroimmunoendocrine system, lead to the development of secondary immunodeficiency and neuropsychiatric disorders.
Among the numerous definitions of the concept of “stress,” we cite the formulation of G. N. Kassil (1983): stress is “a general adaptive reaction of the body that develops in response to the threat of disruption of homeostasis.”
In accordance with the reasons, there is the following classification of types of stress: 1) emotional; 2) social; 3) production; 4) academic; 5) sports; 6) hypokinetic; 7) reproductive; 8) vaccine; 9) medicinal; 10) infectious;
11) space; 12) food; 13) transportation; 14) hypoxic; 15) painful; 16) temperature; 17) light; 18) noise;
19) olfactory; 20) stress of pathological processes; 21) environmental. Undoubtedly, this list can be continued.
A great contribution to the understanding of the mechanisms of development of secondary immunodeficiency under the influence of extreme emotional and physical factors was made by the discovery of B. B. Pershin et al. They established the fact that immunoglobulins of all classes disappeared in the peripheral blood of athletes at the peak of their athletic form before important competitions. Subsequently, these data were confirmed on students during the exam period.