Postfixes(lat. post – after + fixus– attached) is an affixal morpheme that is found after endings or suffixes and serves to form new words or different forms of the same word.

Like other affixal morphemes, postfixes are optional for a word and occur in rare cases.

Postfixes include reflexive particles - Xia And - sya, as well as parts of words - this, -either, -something, which form indefinite pronouns and pronominal adverbs. For example: someone, -or, -someone; someone's, -anyone's; somewhere, -or, -somewhere. Thus, postfixes are strictly assigned to a specific part of speech. However, in modern Russian there are cases when verbal postfixes are observed in nouns, for example: students, workers. This occurred as a result of the transition of a word from one part of speech and is more an exception to the rule than a pattern.

Like prefixes, postfixes are attached to the entire word, and therefore are not accompanied by conversion.

The main function of postfixal morphemes is word formation. Postfix -sya used to form new words. Using postfix -sya from transitive and intransitive verbs is formed large group reflexive verbs: ride- ride; turn white– turn white and so on. (Children are skiing).

Postfix -sya is also used when forming the passive form of verbs: read- read, build- under construction etc. (The lecture is given by the teacher). Postfix -xia used in participle structure (returned, smiling), as well as in other verb forms where it is preceded by a consonant sound (will return, returned, smile). In all verb forms, except participles, after vowel sounds it is used -sya (I'll be back, come back, smiling).

Verb suffixes are regular and productive, adverb postfixes are characterized by low regularity.

Complex derivational formants (confixes),

Their varieties and features.

Confixes- these are word-forming formants that consist of two or more non-adjacent affixes. For example: scream - races scream Xia (no verbs<раскричать>or<кричаться>}, speak - With speak Xia, call - with call Xia , window - under windows Nick and etc.

According to E.A. Zemskaya, isolating confixes as special morphemes when studying the structure of a Russian word is inappropriate. The presence of intermittent morphemes is not typical for the structure of the Russian language. In addition, the postfixal parts of confixes usually coincide in meaning with the corresponding prefixes and suffixes, i.e. with- included in the confix co-...-nick. (For example, dining companion, companion), identical in meaning to the prefix with- (cf. co-author); -Nick, included in the same confix, is identical in meaning to the suffix - Nick(cf.: schoolboy). When studying how affixes function when creating such words, it should be noted that in such cases the suffix and prefix participate as two morphemes in a single act of word formation, joining the generating stem simultaneously, and not sequentially, that is, they are used as a single word-formation device. This method of word formation is called prefix-suffixal . “Calling this method of word formation confixation, and the corresponding morphemes confixes, does not deepen our understanding of this phenomenon, but only replaces some terms with others,” writes E.A. Zemskaya.

It is impossible to agree with all the arguments voiced. Indeed, it is inappropriate to single out a confix as a morpheme, but as a word-forming formant, the existence of a confix is ​​completely justified. In addition, confixation should be understood not only as a prefix-suffixal method of word formation; it is only one of the types of confixation. Let's name other varieties:

- prefix-postfixal method : characteristic of verbs, excludes conversion, for example: fast - once fast Xia, speak - once speak Xia, play - behind play Xia and etc.;

- prefixal-suffixal-postfixal : generous - races generous And t Xia ;

Suffixal-postfixal (may entail conversion): brother - Brother A t Xia, hunting - hunting And t Xia .

A type of prefix-suffixal method is confixation with null suffix : hair – without hair-#-th, gray – about seven-#, leaf – without leaf-#-th, hand – without hands and etc.

There are no unique confixes, but it may contain a unique component (prefix): chickens nose-#-th, lopo wow.

Inflections as complex morphemes, their features.

Flexion(lat. flexio- bending), or ending is an affixal morpheme, located after the root and suffixes, which expresses various grammatical meanings and serves to connect words in a sentence. For example: new s books And, new them books am. Inflection is always a complex unit; it can be identified only in variable parts of speech and only if there are at least two comparable endings.

With the help of endings, not new words are formed, but only forms of the same word that are necessary to connect this word with others: -birches, birches; white, white; white birch, white birch. By linking words as part of a phrase or sentence, inflection can be a means of agreement (forest path) or management (guests appear) as well as grammatical coordination of the main members of the sentence (it's raining).

Endings contribute to the formation of different forms of the same word ( country, country, country, countries). In this case, the ending acts as a syncretic affix. The same ending conveys several meanings at once. For example, in the word Sun inflection -e indicates that the word refers to a noun in the nominative case, singular, neuter. Verb ending -ut (go) indicates the 3rd person and plural form of the present indicative mood.

Usually, as already mentioned, the ending is the final part of the word. However, if the word has a postfix, the ending comes before it (smiled). In composite grammatical forms (the newest) and in some compound nouns (exhibition-sale) and numerals with a broken stem (two hundred) Several distantly located endings are observed.

In the Russian language, along with suffixes and interfixes, inflections are of two types: a) materially expressed: rainbow, coming, beautiful, so-oh, first; b) zero, i.e. not having material, sound expression: wind-ø , walked-ø , one-ø. Zero endings are recognized against the background of other materially expressed endings of a given word, for example: wind-ø , wind-a, wind-y; walked-ø, Shl-a, shl-i. In a word wind-øin relation to other case forms that have materially expressed endings, a zero ending is distinguished, indicating the nominative case of the singular and the grammatical meaning of the masculine gender inherent in this noun. In a word walked- In relation to other verbal forms of the past tense that have materially expressed inflections, a zero ending is distinguished, which contains an indication of the masculine singular of this verbal form of the past tense.

Not all words in Russian have endings. The following do not have endings: a) words forming a group of indeclinable nouns – coat, cinema, foyer and etc.; b) verbs in the indefinite form – think, carry, bake; c) participles – hearing, having heard, having read, humming; d) adverbs – quickly, melodiously, rashly, brotherly; e) adjectives in the comparative form - larger, lighter; e) interjections – oh, alas, out; g) prepositions – in, on, for; h) unions – and, but, yes, since; i) particles – would, whether, same.

13. Isolation of the zero morpheme in the sphere of form and word formation.

Zero morpheme

Word-forming affixes may not be expressed by any sound or complex of sounds. Such affixes are called zero. Zero morpheme is the absence of an affix in any form, contrasted with positively expressed affixes in other forms of the same paradigm. So, in the form of the imperative mood put the null suffix is ​​highlighted.

The meaning of zero affixes can be different, i.e. there are homonymous zero affixes. For example, in morphology in word forms thought-ø, brother-ø we highlight the following zero affixes: in the first word - ø indicator of the masculine gender and singular (cf. forms with materially expressed affixes feminine and middle gender - thought-o, thought-o and plural affix. – thought-and); in the second -ø – indicator of the nominative singular.

The existence of zero morphemes was substantiated by I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay. To identify a zero suffix, you need to follow a number of rules. They are:

1. The null suffix must be synonymous with the material suffix. For example: run# – run stv o (objectified action), sin# – blue (objectified attribute), bezlist#y – leafless n y. Thus, when identifying zero word-formation affixes, it is necessary to take into account the structure of the entire word-formation system of a given language, as the background for isolating words with zero affixes.

2. Only the motivated word has a zero suffix. Wed: noise# (to make noise) And hubbub(unmotivated). Along with the word under consideration, there must necessarily be a cognate word, simpler in meaning, which could be productive for the analyzed one if the derivational meaning of the latter were expressed by a non-zero affix. Conversion can suggest that a word has a zero suffix: if the derived word refers to a different speech than the motivating word, and nothing has been added to the motivating word, we should talk about a zero suffix. For example: gold → gold#oh.

The absence of at least one of these conditions is sufficient to make it impossible to identify a zero derivational affix. Let us explain this with examples.

1. Word hubbub denotes a process. The procedural meaning of nouns is usually expressed in Russian using affixes, for example suffixes -enij(e): singing, looking at, embroidering: k(a): hanging, breaking, carrying, subscribing; -b(a): wrestling, shooting, threshing, mowing etc. However, there is no zero derivational affix in the word gam. The basis for such a statement is the failure to fulfill the second of the two conditions mentioned above. In the Russian language there is no such cognate word (and it should be a verb) that could become a din-producing word.

2. The zero suffix is ​​in those nouns with the meaning of process, along with which there are also generating verbs, cf.: rinsing-# – rinse, tearing-# – tearing. Such nouns are included in the series of words that express procedural meaning using “ordinary” (non-zero) suffixes: wash, wash, wash. Thus, the presence of a zero suffix in a word rinsing reflects its greater formal and semantic complexity compared to a word containing a generating stem: rinse.

3. In words like cockatoo, hummingbird there is no reason to identify a zero derivational affix, since we cannot attribute a derivational meaning to it (for example, “bird”, “living creature”). The first condition is missing. The second condition is also absent - there are no bases that would be productive for these words.

Zero word-forming affixes in the Russian language are often suffixes. This is explained by the fact that words with zero affixes, in their meaning and in relation to their derivatives, are included in the paradigmatic series with derivatives that have non-zero suffixes.

In the field of formative suffixes, there are difficult cases where it is difficult to identify a null suffix. This refers to the zero suffix with the meaning of the imperative mood of verbs. The material suffix is ​​observed in many cases: go, remember, tell me etc. But: read, tell, save, lie down. Here there are no longer forms of one word, but different words. Wed: read - read.

Zero suffixes operate primarily in the word formation of nouns. In addition to the meaning of an abstract action, zero suffixes can denote a person by action or by attribute ( bully, stutterer, suck-up; intellectual, generalist), abstract signs ( dregs, dark, blue, smooth) and some other meanings.

There are no zero prefixes in the Russian language, since there are no words in it that would express the meaning characteristic of prefixes, and at the same time could be interpreted as derivatives from the same root non-prefixed words. In the absence of zero prefixes, a sharp difference between suffixes and prefixes is revealed.

By the nature of the formal expression, affixes can be materially expressed and zero.

Materially expressed affixes from the point of view of their phonemic environment as part of a word form, just like root morphemes, can occupy the positions of allomorphs and variants. So, for example, allomorphs of prefixal morphemes such as v-/vo- vz-/vzo-/vs-; from-/iso-/is- from-/oto-, etc. are determined by two properties of the morphs in front of which they are located: 1) the number of phonemes in their composition, 2) the quality of their initial phoneme.

The quantitative composition of subsequent morphs is determined by the presence/absence of a vowel phoneme in the outcome of the prefixal morph. The absence of a vowel in prefixes like v-, vz-/vs-, iz-/is-, ot- is observed if the subsequent morph forms a syllable. For example: to-be-reap, to-throw, to-wash, to-scream. When consonants coincide in the subsequent morph, allomorphs with the presence of a vowel appear: v-gonat, but v-go-nim; tear it away, drive it away, but tear it away, drive it away.

As for the quality of the initial phoneme of the subsequent morph, it influences the final consonant of the allomorphs of prefixal morphemes. Thus, prefixal morphs with a final voiced consonant are possible only before sonorant and voiced consonant phonemes, for example: take-off, soar-up, avoid, but all-creep, spend, drain. The quality of the sound composition of the preceding morphs also explains the appearance of post-Aixa/-s moocbs. MooA-sya usually takes a position

Allomorphs of one suffixal morpheme -stvor) and -estvur) in the words author-st-o, neighbor-st-o, but student-est-o, kulan-est-o are also caused by the formal side of the environment: the morph -estv(o) appears only after hissing phonemes, and morph -stv(o) - after all the others (actor-st-o, neighbor-st-o, stubborn-st-o).

Morphs are variants if, having identical meaning, they are characterized by phonemic proximity and the ability to replace each other when surrounded by the same morphs. At the same time, variant morphs may have additional stylistic or emotional-expressive load. So, for example, the endings of adjectives -ой/-оу (tih-oh/tih-oh) are options that meet all the specified requirements. Inflection -oyu, in contrast to -oy, is found in poetic speech and is characterized stylistic coloring bookishness.

Zero (or materially unexpressed) are affixes that have a grammatical or word-formation meaning that is not formally expressed. Zero endings include endings (inflections), suffixes and interfixes. In school practice, the concept of a zero morpheme applies only to inflectional affixes - endings. So, for example, a short name

m.r. value, units h., im. etc. without any formal indicators. In this regard, in Russian grammars, zero affixes are defined as “significant absence”. The significance of such affixes is established by comparison with the materially expressed affixes of the same word, which have a certain meaning, according to the principle: if materially expressed affixes have meaning, then zero affixes must also be significant in the same paradigm.

Therefore, the selection of zero affixes (in this case, endings) occurs using the double comparison technique:

1) with a number of significant word forms of the same word that have a material expression (vertical paradigmatic row);

2) with a number of different root formations with zero regularly repeated affixes that have identical or similar meaning (horizontal row).

This can be represented graphically:

characterized by the regular repetition of zero formations with identical or similar meanings, confirms the possibility of identifying a zero affix.

The vertical paradigmatic series can be supplemented by comparison with words of different roots, which have similar

Regularity/irregularity of affixes

Affixes can be regular or irregular, productive or unproductive.

1 See: Tikhonov A. N. Modern Russian literary language. - M., 1988. - P. 59.

2 In words like spouse-(a), the final vowel sound [a] is both a suffix and an ending.

Verbal prefixes are also regular: in-/vo-, vz-/ vzo-jec-, you-, do-, for-, na-, o-/ob-/obo-, from-, s-, u- and etc. Such, for example, is the multi-valued prefix za-, combined with a group of different root verbs: 1) 'beginning of action5: to sing, scream, play", 2) 'direction of action beyond the limits of something5: to drive in, to drive", 3) 'direction of action inside an object5: crawl, enter',

4) ‘the limit of action5: to conquer, preserve”, 5) with the postfix -sya - ‘bringing action to the extreme5: to earn money, to run wild.

Regular repetition is an important property of affixes, which makes it possible to isolate service morphemes from the composition of a word during its morphemic analysis.

The ability of affixes to be regularly reproduced is determined by the nature of their meaning and the function they perform as part of a word. The additional meaning of affixes, which clarifies the subject-logical content of the root, is also more abstract. This makes it possible to maneuver more freely when compatible with different roots. At the same time, the property of regularity has the opposite effect on the nature of their meaning.

Regular affixes, unlike irregular ones, have one meaning or another not only as part of a verbal whole, but also taken separately, outside the word.

Irregular affixes occur in words from time to time, most often in single words. Thus, the suffix -l-(a) is found only in the word met-l-a, -n- in the word tle-n-?, -tai- in the words lazy-tai, saliv-tai; the prefix ko- stands out in the word za-ko-ulok-? (cf.: lane-ok-?), and irregular endings -m, -cm in thematic verbs exist and give have preserved the ancient system of endings: yes-m, yes-cm, etc.

Irregular affixes do not form long verbal series of the same structure and therefore do not have structural models. Their meaning is often lost and becomes clear only as part of the word. For example, the meaning of the suffix -n- in the single word decay, presumably defined as ‘the result of an objectified action’, can only be established by correlating it with the productive stem of the verb decay. Thus, the meaning of irregular affixes, established only as part of a word, resembles the meaning of words as part of phraseological units and therefore is not free.

The degree of regularity/irregularity of different affixes is not the same. Inflectional affixes, and above all endings (inflections), have the greatest regularity. Endowed with an abstract grammatical meaning, they form word forms according to certain standard models. For example, according to a model like I = -a!-i, P = -i/-s, D = -e, B = -y 1st, etc. from-

There are many words with a zero ending; they have a zero ending in the nominative case, but change when declined.

Eg:

fear (zero ending) - fear (ending -a-), wolf - wolf, steppe - steppe,

pain-pain

brother - brother, in order to understand that there is a zero ending, it is enough to change the word by number or cases.



Examples of null endings:

• secretary;
• help;
• calculator;
• magazine;
• life;
• groom;
• batteries;
• lazy person;
• a curtain;
• great-grandfather;
• came;
• Firefly;
• carried out;
• volt;
• composer;
• water pipes;
• nightingale;
• thistle;
• ant.

• Examples of words with a zero ending can be the following: move, union, watermelon, year, city, fruit, bridge, mouse, wounded, order, husband, table, matchmaker, brother, nose, meadow, leaf, toddler, sock, slipper, elk , elephant, hero, night, handsome and so on.

  Examples of nouns with a zero ending, usually these are words of the 2nd or 3rd declension, for example:

  lilac, execution, compote, chair, telephone, engine, backpack, stove.

  It is worth noting that the zero ending in other case forms becomes materially expressed. Compare:

  lilac - zero ending,

  lilac - ending I;

  compote - zero ending,

  compote - ending OM.

  Examples of verbs with zero endings, a large layer of such words are words of the masculine past tense of the indicative mood, for example:

  came in, finished, ran across, poured out, ran, looked in, jumped over, drank, finished, etc.

  Examples - fox, tasks, walked, oven.

  There are certain rules that govern the definition of a null ending. This rule is taught already in the third grade and it sounds like this

  We remember the declension gender, number, case, what influence they have on the formation of the ending.

  

  Examples of words with a zero ending: table, cat, fur, sin, axe, pie, forest, demon, light, answer, husband, throne, magician, world, shutter, sunset, answer, haystack, stable, Cossack, warrior, blacksmith, armor, ocean, dinosaur, space. In other forms, all these words have endings. For example: blacksmith-a, blacksmith-om, blacksmith-y. Therefore, all the words given as an example also have an ending that is considered zero.

  Null-ending words should not be confused with immutable words, since they do not have endings in any form.

  Inflections are called zero(endings in school curriculum) that we do not pronounce or hear sounds They not expressed, and also we don’t write and don’t see letters They not marked. Such inflections occur only in significant inflected words declined or conjugated.

  Zero inflection is revealed by simply comparing the form given to us with other word forms of the same lexeme, where inflections are expressed.

  Let's take a small sentence as an example: Brother did his homework. There are two lexemes with zero inflections in nm: BROTIK, PERFORMED. The lexeme BRATIK is in the initial form, there is no EXPRESS inflection behind the stem, but any word forms from the paradigm of its inflection help to understand that it exists: BRATIKA, BRATIKOM (inflections -A, -OM). The same is true in the verb PERFORMED: as soon as we put it in a different gender or another number (PERFORMED, PERFORMED, PERFORMED) it will become clear: in the word form given as an example sentence, the inflection is zero.

  There are zero inflections:

  FOR IMN OF NOUNS

  singular numbers:

  • 2nd class husband. kind in them pad.: ghost, interruption, internationalism, baboon, brother;
  • inanimate 2nd class. husband. kind in wine fall: I recognize the locker, telephone, elevator, alarm clock;
  • 3rd class in the fall them. and wine: degree, mouse, target, false;
  • raznoskl. PATH in the same cases;

  plural:

  • 2nd class husband. and average kind (not for everyone) and 1st class. kind of wives and husband in the fall family: no towns, schools, lands, sisters, steeples, grandfathers;
  • raznoskl. on -MYA in pad. genus. pl. numbers (except for the lexemes TEMYA, FLAME, BURDEN, they do not have a plural number): imn, vremn, plemn, znamn, vymn (unusual, but the lexeme UDDER is used in the plural), seeds, stirrups;

  FOR IMN ADJECTIVES:

  • Possessives with -IY, -OV (-EV), -IN- (-UN-) are all suffixes, in pad. them. and wine husband. kind: whose? Mashin, papa, Tsaritsyn, grandfathers, Dalev (about the dictionary), raven, wolf, bear;
  • short qualitative ones in number of units. masculine gender: handsome, interesting, magnificent, attractive, powerful;

  AT PRONOUNS

  • demonstrative and possessive in the number of units. sort of husband (cases im. and, if they distribute an inanimate noun, wine): this, that, yours, mine, ours, yours, yours;
  • demonstrative SO and interrogative-relative WHAT in the number of units. kind of male;
  • personal I, YOU and HE (in other inflections expressed in the words WE, YOU inflection -Y);

  FOR IMN NUMERALS:

  • quantitative with the value of a) units (5 9), b) whole tens (10 80) and c) whole hundreds (200 900) in pad. them. and wine Moreover, in complex numbers. in these cases there are two zero inflections: at the end of the word and in the middle, as well as two expressed in other cases, with the exception of the two indicated above;
  • quantitative, denoting whole hundreds (200,900) in gender. pad. at the end of words: two hundred, four hundred, eight hundred, five hundred;
  • ONE (male) in pad. them. and, when combined with noun. inanimate, in wine;

  IN VERBS:

  • indicative mood in husband. kind of past tense: translated, tested, illustrated, scattered;
  • conditional mood in gender husband. numbers of units: would translate, test, illustrate, scatter;
  • imperative moods in the singular: review, make laugh, add, mark;

  AT PARTICIPLES passive short units masculine gender: carrying (from carried), deciding (from being solved), completed, built.

  Besides, one should distinguish between words with zero inflections and words with no inflections.

  

  The zero ending is quite a common case in the Russian language and there are quite a lot of words that have such an ending not expressed by sounds or letters. For example, many nouns have zero endings in the nominative case: Wolf, Hare, Elephant, Thrush, Mouse, Rabbit. When the form of the word changes, the ending in these words appears - Wolf-Wolf-Wolf-Wolf-Wolf.

  Another case of the presence of a zero ending may be the disappearance of the ending expressed by a sound during declination, for example in the plural. So in the word Owl the ending is A, but in the plural and genitive case we get the word (no one?) OW, also with a zero ending.

  Zero ending not expressed materially. That is, it is there, but we don’t see it. There is no sound after the root, which expresses the grammatical meaning. For example, the word house. When changing, the ending appears - home, home, home, etc.

  Son, Georgian, soldier, pomegranate, move, year, city, fruit, bridge, order, matchmaker, brother, husband, table, nose, meadow, leaf, union, watermelon, toddler, sock, slipper, elk, elephant, hero, night, mouse, wounded, handsome, etc.

  

1) The grammatical method is the material expression of grammatical meanings (both relational and derivational).

Grammatical meanings are expressed not directly by phonemes (or even more so by speech sounds), but by well-known technical combinations of phonetic material, which are grammatical methods.

Ways of expressing grammatical meanings - ways of forming word forms. There are a limited number of grammatical methods used in a language.

SYNTHETIC METHOD– expression of meanings in the word itself:

Affixation(from Latin affixus - attached) - the formation of word forms using endings, prefixes, formative suffixes, infixes, postfixes (table, table, table, etc.; do - do, write - write, etc.; justify – justify, exchange – exchange, etc. Flexion(Latin flexio - bending, transition) - the same as ending; an inflectional morpheme that expresses the meaning of gender, number, case and person in word forms of the Russian language, and also serves to express morpho-syntactic relations.

For example, inflection -a in the word form water expresses the meanings of the feminine, singular, nominative case, inflection -i in the word form green expresses plural meanings. numbers and creativity case.

Internal inflection (inflection of the base)– a change in the sound composition of the root, expressing the difference in grammatical meanings (alternation of sounds): remove - remove, send - send (alternation of the root vowel with a zero sound serves to distinguish between imperfect and perfect forms), vez - vez (alternation of the root vowel serves to distinguish different lexicons -grammatical classes: verb and noun); lock - lock, die - die, dial - dial, etc.

Zero flexion- an ending that is not materially expressed and is distinguished in a word by composition with the correlative forms in which it is materially represented.

For example, in the combination pair of boots, the second word, in relation to other forms of its paradigm (boot, boot, etc., boots, boots, etc.) distinguishes in its composition the zero ending of the genitive case plural.

Agglutination and fusion.

Agglutination (Latin agglūtinātio – gluing; the term was introduced by Fr. Bopp)- a method of forming word forms and derivative words by mechanically attaching standard affixes to unchangeable, devoid of internal inflection, stems or roots (note that each affix has only one grammatical meaning, just as each meaning is always expressed by the same affix): in Turkish ode means “room”, lar is a plural suffix, yes is a locative suffix (for the question where?); when these elements are combined, the result is odalarda with the meaning “in the rooms”; ara (Kazakh “saw”) + ha (D.p. 71 units) + lar (I.p. plural) = ara-lar-ga (D.p. plural); bala (Tat. “child”) + ha (D.p. singular) + lar (I.p. plural) = bala-lar-ga (D.p. plural).

Fusion (Latin fūsio – alloy; the term was introduced by E. Sapir)– fusion of morphemes, accompanied by a change in their phonemic composition. Most often, a close morphological connection of the modified root with polysemantic non-standard affixes occurs, leading to the blurring of boundaries between morphemes.

These include:

1) interweaving of a prefix and a root, as a result of which the same sound belongs to both morphemes: I will come (at + I go), to open (time + yawn), etc.;

2) merging the final sound of the root with the initial sound of the suffix: grow (rast + ti);

3) the dual role of the suffix: Sverdlovsk region (Sverdlov + -sk + -sk + -aya, where the first -sk is included in the basis of the noun, the second -sk was supposed to serve as a suffix of the relative adjective);

4) interweaving of parts in a complex word as a result of the loss of one of two identical syllables immediately following each other (haplology): porcupine (dick + o + image), mineralogy (mineral + o + logy), morphonology (mor + pho + phonology).

Agglutination is characteristic of most languages ​​of Asia, Africa and Oceania (which have affixes), fusion is mainly a property of Indo-European languages, although they also have elements of agglutination.

For example, in Russian language cases of agglutination appear in prefixation, because prefixes in Russian language are unambiguous, standard for different parts of speech, and their connection to the roots does not have the character of close fusion: run, run across, run out, run out, run out, run out.

Prefixation – ("pre" comes from the Latin prae, meaning "before", "ahead") a way of forming word forms and derived words by adding prefixes to the roots/stems of words.

For example: go And over-to-go – you-to-go – to-go – to move as a way of expressing NSV and SV verb

Suffixation - (from lat.suffixus"attached") a way of forming word forms and derived words by adding suffixes to the roots/stems of words.

For example: teacher - teacher prostrate a (male and female), fly – years chick(verb and noun), German Arbeiter "worker" – Arbeiter in“worker” (male and female), Feier “holiday” – feier lich“festive, solemn” (noun and adjective).

Stress - reversal of stress (accentuation (from Latin accentus - emphasis))

For example: pour - pour, cut - cut, lock - lock, etc.

Suppletivism (from Late Latin suppletivus - complementary)– formation of forms of the same word from different roots. The root morphs of such word forms lack formal (phonemic) proximity and therefore cannot be combined into one morpheme.

In the Russian language there are S. forms of singular and plural nouns (person - people, child - children), case forms of personal pronouns - forms of the nominative case, on the one hand, and indirect cases - on the other (I - me, me; we - us, us; he, she, it - his, him, her, her, etc.), comparative degree of adjectives and adverbs (good - better, bad - worse, many - more, little - less), short form of the adjective. (big - great), past tense forms of the verb (go, go, going - walked, walked, walked), aspectual pairs of the verb (take - take, put - put, talk - say, catch - catch). Reduplication (lat. reduplicatio – doubling)- a way of expressing grammatical meaning, consisting in complete or partial doubling (repetition) of the stem: barely, honor with honor, glad-glad, hand in hand, white-white, a little, blue-blue, once upon a time, long- long, etc.

II. ANALYTICAL METHOD– expression of meanings outside the word: I am writing – I will write, beautiful – more beautiful, etc.

Function words(prepositions, conjunctions, particles, connectives, articles, auxiliary verbs) - a combination of a significant word with an auxiliary word.

For example: writing - will write – wrote would(expression of the category of everyday tense, subjunctive of the verb),

Beautiful - more Beautiful(expression of comparative degree adj.), etc.

Order of words in a sentence - the location of words to express the relationships between them in a speech chain.

Whale. Wo kan ni (I'm looking at you) and

Ni kan wo (you are looking at me);

Rus. The outbuilding blocks the house and

The house is blocked by an outbuilding

(expression of syntactic functions)

III. MIXED METHOD– a combination of elements of synthetic and analytical methods in the formation of word forms: in the book (preposition and case ending); I read (personal pronoun and verb ending to express 1st person meaning). Depending on the GC and the method of its expression, the structure of the language itself differs: analytical and synthetic languages.

V books e (preposition and case ending to express prepositional case noun);

I chita Yu (personal pronoun and verb ending to express the meaning of the 1st person, singular verb).

2) ANALYTICAL AND SYNTHETIC LANGUAGES.

Analytical languages– languages ​​in which grammatical meanings (relationships between words in a sentence) are expressed not by the forms of the words themselves, but by function words for significant words, the order of significant words, and the intonation of the sentence.

Analytical languages ​​include, for example, the languages ​​of most modern Europe. languages ​​English, Romance (French, Spanish, Italian), Bulgarian, Modern Greek, Modern Indian. (Pali, Pehveli), Afghan., New Persian. and New Armenians. dialects, Danish, Vietnamese, Sino-Tibetan. family.

Synthetic languages– languages ​​in which grammatical meanings are expressed within the word itself (affixation, internal inflection, stress, suppletivism, etc., i.e. 72 forms of the words themselves). To express the relationships between words in a sentence, elements of the analytical structure (function words, order of significant words, intonation) can also be used.

Synthetic languages ​​include, for example, ancient I.-E. languages ​​(Ancient Greek, Latin, Scythian, Old Slavic, Sanskrit), Russian, German, Lithuanian, Latvian, Turkic, Mongolian, Finno-Ugric, Tungusic-Manchu, Semitic-Hamitic ( most), Caucasian, Paleo-Asian, Bantu, languages. America Indians

They include -ov-, -en-, -in-, -och-, -ich-, -nich-, -l-. However, -j-, used between the vowels of neighboring morphemes, in its origin is a so-called intervocalic consonant, which since ancient times has developed from the confluence of two vowel sounds. The prefix and root are always expressed materially. Inflections and suffixes can be either materially expressed or null. Homonymy is widely represented among the roots: water - to drive, drawing - rice grower. When determining the productivity/unproductivity of affixes, we pay attention to their different productivity in the formation of new words or forms. numerous groups words in modern Russian, for example, the suffixes -ist-, -nik-, denoting a male person by occupation (machinist, defender); suffixes -sk-, -n- when forming relative and qualitative adjectives (Gorno-Altai, harmful); prefixes without-, non- (safe, timid). It is necessary to distinguish between the concept of articulation of a word and articulation of the base of a word. related words ; The essence of the lexical-semantic method is that words are not created anew, but their semantics changes. In this method, three main types are distinguished: 1) the formation of homonyms by breaking up polysemantic words (language 1, language 2); 2) rethinking the semantics of words already existing in the Russian language (MTS - machine and tractor station and MTS - mobile telephone network); 3) the transition of borrowed proper names into common nouns (mackintosh, x-ray). each of them has meaning components (“big”, “small”) that are absent in the other word. various types affix word formation. In addition, in Russian word formation, the following word-formation devices are used as formants: when substantivizing an adjective and participle - a system of inflections and a motivated word (noun), which is part of the system of inflections of a motivating (adjective or participle) - a system of inflections one - th grammatical gender or only plural; when adding: 1) a fixed order of components; 2) a single main emphasis, mainly on the supporting component; with the abbreviation type of word formation: a) arbitrary (indifferent to morphemic division) truncation of stems included in the motivating word combination, the last of which may not be abbreviated; b) single stress; c) a certain system of inflections in accordance with the assignment of an abbreviation to one of the types of noun declension. It is known that the verbal suffixes -nicha- and -stva- arose due to indirect motivation in verbs such as fashionable, stubborn, formed with the help of the suffixes -a-, -ova- from nouns with the suffixes -nik- and -stv-: fashionable – to be fashionable, stubbornness - to be stubborn. Words that have more than one motivation can be interpreted in synchronic terms as simultaneously referring to different types word formation. Thus, the word gloomy can be considered both as a prefixal formation, motivated by the word cheerfully, and as a suffixal formation, motivated by the word gloomy. Currently, in the modern Russian language there are a large number of groups of words of a certain morphemic composition that have more than one direct motivation. These include: 1) words that simultaneously relate to several types of word formation: a) prefixal / suffixal (insensitive – sensitive and insensitive); b) compounding / prefixal (down - to the bottom and to - down); type discard, push out, motivated by two prefixed verbs of the perfect form, each of which, in turn, is motivated by unprefixed verbs that are in the following relationships with each other: a) correlation by aspect (the perfect verb often has meaning of one-time occurrence: throw - throw away throw throw - throw away b) correlation by frequency and direction of action (these include verbs with the semantics “movement in space”): roll - roll in 31