The relationship between the concepts of man, individuality, individual, personality,

E from revealed the problem of human nature.

Human- a type of living organisms on earth, a living creature with a complexly organized brain, capable of producing tools and carrying out activities.

Individual-from a biological point of view, an individual, a separately existing organism, from a mental point of view, an individual person.

Personality_ a person capable of making a decision and being responsible to himself and society for making and implementing his decisions, dominates chance. The individual is included in social relations.

Individuality- unique originality in personality psychology; its uniqueness and irreproducibility.

As a single representative of the human race, a person is considered as an individual. An individual is always one of many. This concept does not include the biological and social characteristics of a person.

When talking about a person’s characteristics, the concept of “individuality” is used. Individuality is a characteristic of the peculiarity, uniqueness of each individual person, the human personality.

At the same time, personality is understood as an imprint of the social relations into which a person enters throughout his life. The process of personality formation is called “socialization”.

Personality has a complex structure. Personality is viewed as an individual expression of the values, ideals, and norms of a given particular society. Personality is formed in a specific historical situation, in the process of communication and interaction with other people.

the concept of personality in philosophy, sociology, cultural studies and psychology.

There are different approaches to the study of human personality: psychological, sociological, etc. In philosophy, personality is studied in its integrity. Philosophy tries to combine various approaches to the study of personality. This is done by a special philosophical discipline - anthropology.

The problem of personality in philosophy is a question about the essence of man, his place in the world, his social purpose as a creator of history. Important characteristic personality is its moral and spiritual essence. The more clearly a person’s intellectuality, morality and volitional qualities are expressed, the brighter and more significant the personality itself. The personality of such a person is focused on universal human values, free self-expression, creativity, and goodness.

"Personality"- one of the central concepts of sociology. It plays important role in the "construction" of social knowledge, helping to understand why the human world is so different from the rest of the natural world and why it remains human only on the basis of preserving the richness of individual differences between people.

N Philosophy operates more with the capacious concept of “man,” which includes his biological, mental, and cultural nature. Sociologists take into account, first of all, the social qualities that are formed in people in the process of living together (as a direct product of coexistence with others), somewhat abstracting from everything else.

Psychology pays attention to the individual differences of people: their temperament, character, behavioral characteristics and assessments, studying how and why they differ from each other. For a sociologist, personality is, on the contrary, what makes people similar to each other (that is, they note what is socially typical in people). In other words, personality in sociology is something special.

In philosophy, “personality” (read: “person”), in accordance with established traditions, is considered as:

1) work;

2) creator;

3) activist.

In psychology, “personality” (read: “individual”) is the integrity of mental properties, processes, relationships that distinguish a given subject from another.

For a psychologist, the potentialities of subjects are different, since the qualities of people are individual: both innate and acquired. Individuality reflects the uniqueness of a person’s biological and social properties, making him a unique operating unit of a certain group or community.

Both philosophy and psychology have a significant influence on the development of sociological ideas about personality, but their special view on this subject and specific terminology are used only at the level of special theories.

So, sociologists, as a rule, operate with the concepts of “social subject” and “personality” to describe the social essence and social qualities of a person. In modern sociology, personality, like the subject (which, as we remember, can be individual – identical to “personality” and group – identical to “community”), means an active social principle, a certain socio-historical type of ability to act.

It is believed that personality as a socially typical characteristic of people has undergone a certain evolution in the course of historical progress. Primitive was characterized by adaptive, adaptive activities, while the modern one has a much richer functional repertoire and generally plays an active transformative role in nature and in society.

That is, the personality more and more fully manifested itself, formed and filled the person, tearing him out of the world of nature (desires and passions) into the world of creativity, comprehension and understanding of the signs of another. In this sense, personality as a social quality of a person became an increasingly concentrated substance of his special (social) nature.

Of the variety of definitions of personality, cultural studies offers the following two definitions.

1) Personality is an individual with his own special soul, intellect, with his own unique, inimitable “I”.

2) Personality- this is an individual person who is a product of social relations, in which the social is manifested in a special, unique and inimitable form. We can say it a little differently: personality is a separate individual in whom the social is manifested and realized in a special, specific form. This specificity distinguishes each person from all other individuals. Distinguishes from all those who lived in the past, living in the present and, possibly, in the distant future.

Who is this person? A person often uses this concept, especially without asking the question of what he means. When talking about personality, it usually points to something. In psychology, sociology, personality also has certain characteristics. The point is that people are not born individuals, but become them.

All people are different. This can be judged both by appearance, which is different for each person, and by character, behavior patterns and even reasoning about the world in which people live. Even twins have different personalities, despite the fact that they may look similar. What distinguishes people from each other:

1. Their physiological characteristics, which are laid down according to the individual genetic code.
2. Their upbringing, which they each went through individually.
3. Their living conditions in which each person grew and developed.
4. Their experience, which consists of exclusively personal stories, reflections, conclusions drawn and actions taken.

Personality is a set of qualities, thoughts, actions, stories, fears, complexes and experiences that a person acquires. This set is individual, which sets a person apart from other people.

What is the concept of personality?

A person becomes a person over the years. At first he is born simply as an individual belonging to the human race. Only over time does he begin to acquire various qualities and habits, roles and knowledge, which form his personality. What does the concept of personality mean? This is the set:

1. Strong-willed qualities.
2. Character trait.
3. Social and personal roles.

Personality is his strengths and weaknesses, experience, knowledge, actions and results that he himself has achieved. Also, personality is the social role that he constantly plays out. Moreover, one person can have a lot of these roles, and he constantly changes them, depending on the situation, the goals set for him and the requirements put forward to him.

The concept of “personality” is often confused with the terms “individual” and “individuality”. These are all different concepts:

• is a representative of humanity. An individual is a newborn child who does not yet possess any qualities, experience, or achievements. From the individual comes a personality. However, this does not always happen.
• is a unique set of qualities that is observed in one person. These are character traits, temperament, abilities, communication style, mental processes. This set is unique for one person and is absolutely not inherent, it is different for another individual.

Despite the differences between the concepts, they are all components of a person that define him as a unique individual. How are these concepts related to each other?

First, a person is born as an individual. It belongs to the human race, which is characterized by certain physiological structures with their stages of development. Then the child begins to contact people, because of which he develops certain qualities and habits, which makes him an individual. As a person lives his life, he encounters various situations, he learns to make decisions and overcome difficulties, control emotions, and be responsible for the consequences of his own actions. This ultimately shapes the personality.

Every person goes through certain stages of his development. This is a biological process inherent in nature. And if it weren’t for such development, people would have remained like this. If at the beginning of their lives all people need the full care of their parents, then as they grow older, this need disappears. And now former children can give birth themselves and protect their babies.

Parents must remember that any personality goes through certain stages of its development. At each of these stages you need to use your own tools that do not work at other stages. Therefore, the behavior and arguments that you demonstrate to a child when he is in preschool age absolutely cannot be used when the child is in adolescence.

If in infancy you decided what the child would eat and how to dress, then starting from adolescence, you need to leave this right to your child. But since not all parents think about this, they find themselves in various conflict situations with their children. Many parents continue to guide and discipline their children after they have become teenagers or even adults. But, excuse me, if it worked when your child was little, it won’t work now. And this is the law of nature, and not anyone’s whim.

The stages of personality development allow a person to become an adult, self-sufficient and independent. If this had not happened, then humanity would have died out and there would have been no progress. Only due to the fact that every year a child needs the care of his parents less and less, allows humanity to exist. And parents themselves must understand this.

If your child is under 3 years old, then you can use those tools that are absolutely not suitable when he is 7 or even 15 years old. Exactly what tools are needed at a particular stage of your child’s development are described in books on child psychology. Learn and get used to the idea that the older your child gets, the less parenting and control you are required to do with him. There comes a time when the child stops listening to you altogether. And this is the law of nature, which is the only correct one!

However, psychologists note that not every individual becomes an adult and independent person. Many people get stuck at one of the stages of their development, by the age of 45 or even 60, not being able to take responsibility for their actions or control their emotions.

• Individuals often do not become individuals if they are subjected to excessive guardianship and care from their parents, who try to do everything for them.
• Children who are deprived of parental care, love and attention often become individuals. They are forced to face the realities of life and learn to live in them.

Everyone develops at their own pace, which is determined not only by genetics and evolution, but also by living conditions.

The concept of personality in psychology

A personality in psychology is an individual who manifests himself in objective activities and social relationships. He shows his vision of the world, which expresses it individual characteristics. It also becomes important what kind of relationships a person builds with others.

A person’s attitude towards a certain subject is expressed through the experience that he already has and the knowledge that the individual has. They form the reaction that a person manifests in relation to a given subject.

Depending on a person’s attitude towards certain things, he develops. Its level depends directly on how important a person considers a particular subject to be.

There are two factors that a person forgets to take into account when living his life, making vital decisions, choosing one or another partner for marriage or work. Man is truly the master of his own destiny. Even if he does not realize this, he submits to someone else’s will, he is dependent on the opinions of the people around him, he tries to please someone, he is still responsible for the kind of life he lives. It was his choice to become a weak-willed and submissive person, even if he does not remember the moment when he made this decision.

There are two factors that a person misses in solving any issue:

1. He is responsible for his life. This means that if he does not like the path he is following and does nothing to take a different path, this also lies on his conscience.
2. He is responsible for whether he is a person or not. It is difficult to call a person an individual when he depends on someone, succumbs to the influence of others, does not think with his own head and constantly needs help. Of course, all people are individuals. But such a person can be called an “empty personality,” that is, absent, sleepy, underdeveloped.

You live your life. Understand that no one can live your life. You are the one who is sick, you feel it, you go through all the events. No one will live through all this instead of you. Accordingly, you have more control over your life. You may be influenced, intimidated, suppressed, etc. But only you can decide how to react to this. There are many ways to solve the same issue. And the decision you make affects your future destiny.

Go your own way and be your own person. Undoubtedly, you live in a society where there are rules and laws that you must obey. But this does not prevent you from deciding your own destiny and being the person who would be worthy of your own respect.

The concept of personality in sociology and philosophy

In sociology, personality is considered as part of social connections:

1. - the social status that a person occupies, which determines his responsibilities and rights. A person can have many such statuses, depending on the presence of relatives, friends, work, activities, etc.
2. Personality is a structure:

• Irrational (It) – instincts, desires, passions.
• Rational (I) – consciousness.
• Super-Ego – guilt, conscience, moral control.

All three components must be harmoniously combined in the personality: It must be controlled, just like the Self. Everything is controlled by the Super-Ego.

In philosophy, personality is understood as an individual who is aware of his own essence, the meaning of life and purpose. A person becomes a person when he realizes his arrival in life, his purpose, his ultimate goal. The individual is able to freely express himself and control his own motives.

The concept of criminal personality in criminology

In criminology, it is also important to know personality psychology. To conduct an investigation and find criminals, you must understand their essence and internal motivations. By observing the behavior of criminals, you can do the following:

1. Prevent future crimes by introducing new laws and regulations.
2. Find the criminal, knowing his psychological profile, behavioral characteristics and motives.

Some believe that a person acquires the “personality of a criminal” from the moment he commits a crime. Others believe that a person becomes a criminal even before he commits an inappropriate act. In any case, a person loses his identity as soon as he commits a crime, while he retains it if he repents of his crime.

Bottom line

A personality is a person who has already found his face and is somehow different from other representatives of the human race. In the end, all people become individuals. The rest should be attributed to moral prejudices, when people talk about the loss of human qualities when committing inappropriate acts.

The concept of personality in philosophy

History of views on personality

· In the early Christian period the great Cappadocians (primarily Gregory of Nyssa and Gregory the Theologian) identified the concepts of “hypostasis” and “face” (before them, the concept of “face” in theology and philosophy was descriptive; it could be used to refer to the mask of an actor or the legal role that a person performed). The consequence of this identification was the emergence of a new concept of “personality,” previously unknown in the ancient world.

· In medieval philosophy, personality was understood as the essence of God

· In modern European philosophy, the individual was understood as a citizen

· In the philosophy of romanticism, the individual was understood as a hero.

Modern views on personality in philosophy

According to the logic of personalism, the existence of an individual, woven into a complex network of social relations, subject to social changes, excludes the possibility for him to assert his own, unique “I”. Therefore, it is necessary to distinguish between the concepts of individual and personality. Man, as part of the race (Homo Sapiens), as part of society, is an individual. About this human - biological or social atom - nothing is known. He is anonymous (in Kierkegaard's words) - only an element, a part determined by its relationship with the whole. A person as an individual can assert himself only through free expression of will, through a will that overcomes both the finitude of a person’s life and social barriers, as if from within a person. In the sphere of ideas of personalism, a tendency is developing that will then become a commandment of existentialism - a statement about the fundamental hostility of society and the individual.

Personality attributes

Will

Will is a property of a person, which consists in his ability to consciously control his psyche and actions. It manifests itself in overcoming obstacles that arise on the way to achieving a consciously set goal. Positive qualities of will and manifestations of its strength ensure the success of activities. Strong-willed qualities often include courage, perseverance, determination, independence, self-control and others. The concept of vomlya is very closely related to the concept of freedom.

Will is a person’s conscious regulation of his behavior and activities, expressed in the ability to overcome external and internal difficulties when performing purposeful actions and deeds.

Will is a person’s ability to control his behavior, to mobilize all his strength to achieve his goals.

Will is the conscious actions of a person, based on his personal worldview.

Will is a person’s ability to act in the direction of a consciously set goal, overcoming internal obstacles (i.e., one’s immediate desires and aspirations).

The development of will occurs in directions

· Transformation of involuntary mental processes into voluntary ones.

· Gaining control over one's behavior.

· Development of strong-willed personality traits.

· A person consciously sets himself more and more difficult tasks and pursues more and more distant goals that require significant volitional efforts over a fairly long period of time. This can be encountered in the absence of inclinations for a certain activity, but through work a person achieves good results.

Properties belonging to a strong-willed person

Strength of will

This is the inner strength of the individual. It manifests itself at all stages of the volitional act, but most clearly in what obstacles were overcome with the help of volitional actions and what results were obtained. It is obstacles that are an indicator of willpower.

Determination

Conscious and active orientation of the individual towards a specific result of activity. Such a person knows exactly what he wants, where he is going and what he is fighting for. Strategic commitment - The ability of an individual to be guided in all his activities by certain principles and ideals. That is, there are firm ideals from which a person does not deviate. Operational determination - The ability to set clear goals for individual actions and not become disconnected from them in the process of execution. People easily change the means to achieve their goals.

Initiative

A quality that allows a person to start any business. Very often such people become leaders. Initiative is based on the abundance and brightness of new ideas, plans, and rich imagination.

Independence

The ability to not be influenced by various factors, to critically evaluate the advice and suggestions of other people, to act on the basis of one’s views and beliefs. Such people actively defend their point of view, their understanding of the task.

Excerpt

A quality that makes it possible to suspend actions, feelings, thoughts that spontaneously arise under the influence of external factors, which may be inadequate to a given situation and can aggravate it or lead to further undesirable consequences.

Determination

Ability to make and implement quick, informed and firm decisions. Externally, this quality manifests itself in the absence of hesitation when making a decision. Opposite qualities are: impulsiveness, haste when making decisions, indecisiveness.

Faith

Vemra is the recognition of something as true without preliminary factual or logical verification, solely by virtue of an internal, subjective, immutable conviction that does not need evidence for its justification, although sometimes it looks for it. The word "faith" is also used in the sense of "religion", "religious teaching" - for example, Christian faith, Muslim faith, etc. http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0 - cite_note-0

Etymology

Presumably goes back to the ancient Indo-European word “varatra” (rope, rope; that which binds, connects).

Religious faith

Religions generally consider faith to be one of the cardinal virtues. IN In Christianity, faith is defined as the union of man with God. The connection itself comes from real experience.

In the Christian tradition, faith is the expectation of what one hopes for, the confidence of what one does not fully know and have not seen.

In the biblical studies of the New Testament, faith is the main and necessary factor that allows a person to overcome the laws of earthly nature (for example, the alleged walking of the Apostle Peter on the waters).

“True” faith (that is, faith that, according to Christians, is not based on prejudice) is considered by Christians as a practical solution to the problem of recognizing the existence of fundamentally unknowable entities, the highest of which is God. At the same time, the fundamental finitude and limitations of human knowledge (for example, there is no doubt that it is impossible to find and record on information media all the prime numbers, since there are infinitely many of them, or to calculate all the digits of any of the irrational numbers, etc.) is considered proof of the need for faith , which is interpreted as a person’s willingness to act, despite the incompleteness of his knowledge. When applied to God, this means that although no person will ever be able to fully describe/comprehend the nature of Theophany, the evidence available to the believer of the truth of the Prophet or Messenger of God is sufficient to follow His commandments.

Theologians believe that the phenomenon of faith in this case takes on vital importance to build a civilization, since (at least from a religious point of view) there is no other motivation for moral behavior other than the fear of God's judgment - that is, one can hardly expect a person to consciously sacrifice his own good for the good of his neighbor, unless at the same time he internally refers to some transcendental, absolute authority [source unspecified 139 days]. For some believers, the motivation for moral behavior may be based on ideas about the afterlife, that is, they hope for a reward after death or fear punishment for their sins. A person who truly believes in the existence of God has the hope that following His commandments will bring great benefit, whereas with confidence in the absence of God, it does not matter what behavior to choose, because death destroys the personality and, therefore, any personal motivation. In other words, moral behavior will not hurt in any case, and if the existence of heaven and hell turns out to be true, then it will turn out to be quite beneficial (see Pascal's Wager).

Atheistic approach to faith

Atheists or materialists give their own interpretation of the concept of “faith.” A special case of manifestation of the phenomenon of faith is religious faith, generated by the specific conditions of existence of society, primarily class society, namely: the powerlessness of people in the process of their interaction with the natural and social environment and the need to compensate for this powerlessness, to replenish their alienated existence with an illusory other world, the corresponding their value attitudes. Theology recognizes religious faith as an integral property of the human soul or as a grace bestowed by God. In this sense, faith is different from reason and/or knowledge.

Bertrand Russell wrote about faith

Theories of faith

In history Philosophy and psychology distinguish three theories of faith.

· Emotional. They consider faith primarily as a feeling (Hume and others);

· Intelligent. Faith is interpreted as a phenomenon of the intellect (J. St. Mill, Brentano, Hegel and others);

· Strong-willed. They recognize faith as an attribute of the will (Descartes, Fichte, etc.).

Objects and subjects of faith

Objects of faith are usually not given to the subject sensually and appear only in the form of a possibility. In this case, the object of faith appears to exist in reality, figuratively, emotionally.

The subject of faith can be an individual, a social group and society as a whole. Faith reflects not only the object, but mainly the subject’s attitude towards it, and thereby the social existence of the subject, his needs and interests.

Liberty

Freedom is the ability to choose an option and implement (ensure) the outcome of an event. The absence of such a choice and the implementation of choice is tantamount to a lack of freedom—unfreedom. (see also Degrees of freedom).

Freedom is the absence of coercion from other people. (see also Libertarianism).

Freedom is one of the types of manifestation of chance, directed by free will (intentionality of the will, conscious freedom) or stochastic law (unpredictability of the outcome of an event, unconscious freedom). In this sense, the concept of “freedom” is opposite to the concept of “necessity”.

In ethics, “freedom” is associated with the presence of human free will. Free will imposes responsibility on a person and assigns merit to his words and actions. An act is considered moral only if it is committed by free will and is a free expression of the subject’s will. In this sense, ethics is aimed at making a person aware of his freedom and the responsibility associated with it.

Absolute freedom is the flow of events in such a way that the will of each actor in these events is not subject to violence by the will of other actors or circumstances.

In the “Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen” (1789, France), freedom is interpreted as the ability “to do everything that does not harm another: thus, the exercise of the natural rights of each person is limited only by those limits that ensure other members of society the enjoyment of the same rights. These limits can only be determined by law.”

In law, freedom is associated not simply with the responsibility of the subject for his actions, which implies his free will, but also with the measure of responsibility - the sanity or insanity of the individual at the time of the commission of the act. The development of this measure of responsibility for an act is caused by the demand for justice, fair retribution - a measure of punishment.

In law - enshrined in the constitution or other legislative act the possibility of certain human behavior (for example, freedom of speech, freedom of religion, etc.). The category of “freedom” is close to the concept of “right” in a subjective sense, however, the latter presupposes the presence of a more or less clear legal mechanism for the implementation and usually a corresponding obligation of the state or another entity to perform some action (for example, to provide work in the case of the right to work) . On the contrary, legal freedom does not have a clear mechanism for implementation; it corresponds to the obligation to refrain from committing any actions that violate this freedom. Oddly enough, a common mistake is the opinion that freedom of speech is one of the components of freedom (from a political point of view), but nevertheless it is not so.

Freedom is a means to achieve the goal and meaning of human life. Among the pagans, the ideals of freedom served as the basis for the creation of a democratic society, the classic example of which was Athens in Ancient Greece. In recent centuries, modern society has returned to these ideals.

Freedom is the conscious actions of a person, based on the ethics of the society around him.

Ideas about freedom in various philosophical systems

In the history of the development of the concept of freedom, the concept of creative freedom is gradually replacing the concept of freedom from obstacles (coercion, causality, fate). In ancient philosophy (in Socrates and Plato) we are talking primarily about freedom in fate, then about freedom from political despotism (in Aristotle and Epicurus) and about the disasters of human existence (in Epicurus, the Stoics, in Neoplatonism). In the Middle Ages, freedom from sin and the curse of the church were implied, and a discord arose between the morally required freedom of man and the omnipotence of God required by religion. In the Renaissance and the subsequent period, freedom was understood as the unhindered, comprehensive development of the human personality.

Since the Enlightenment, the concept of freedom has emerged, borrowed from liberalism and the philosophy of natural law (Althusius, Hobbes, Grotius, Pufendorf; in 1689 in England - the Bill of Rights), restrained by an ever-deepening scientific view that recognizes the dominance of omnipotent natural causality and regularity. In him. religion and philosophy, starting from Meister Eckhart, including Leibniz, Kant, Goethe and Schiller, as well as German. idealism before Schopenhauer and Nietzsche, poses the question of freedom as a question of the postulate of moral and creative correspondence of essence and its development. Marxism considers freedom a fiction [source unspecified 121 days]: a person thinks and acts depending on his motives and environment (see Situation), and the main role in his environment is played by economic relations and class struggle. But a person’s ability to analyze, introspect, model, present the results of his actions and further consequences is not taken into account. Animals act depending on their motives and environment, but man is something higher by definition. Spinoza defines freedom as a conscious necessity.

According to Heidegger's existentialism, the basic state of being is fear-- fear before the possibility of non-existence, fear, which frees a person from all the conventions of reality and, therefore, allows him to achieve a certain degree of freedom, based on nothingness, to choose himself in his inevitable assignment of responsibility to himself (see Abandonment), then is to choose oneself as one’s own, valuable existence. According to Jaspers' existentialism, a person is free to overcome the existence of the world in choosing himself and achieve the transcendence of the All-Encompassing (see Encompassing, Surrounding).

According to R. May, “...The ability to transcend the immediate situation is the basis of human freedom. The unique quality of a human being is a wide range of possibilities in any situation, which, in turn, depend on self-awareness, on his ability in the imagination to sort out different ways of responding to a given situation. This understanding of freedom bypasses the problem of determinism in decision making. No matter how a decision is made, a person is aware of it, and he is aware not of the reasons and goals of the decision, but of the meaning of the decision itself. A person is able to go beyond the immediate task (no matter what we call the objective conditions: necessity, incentive, or psychological field), he is able to have some kind of relationship with himself, and make a decision in accordance with this.

Free being means the ability to exercise good or evil will. Good will has the certainty of the unconditional, the divine; it is limited to the unconscious stubbornness of life of simple determinate being and true being. According to Sartre's existentialism, freedom is not a property of man, but his substance. A person cannot differ from his freedom, freedom cannot differ from its manifestations. Man, because he is free, can project himself onto a freely chosen goal, and that goal will determine who he is. Along with goal-setting, all values ​​arise; things emerge from their undifferentiation and are organized into a situation that completes a person and to which he himself belongs. Therefore, a person is always worthy of what happens to him. He has no grounds for justification.

The concepts of anarchism and freedom are closely related. The basis of anarchist ideology is the assertion that the state is a prison for the people. This assertion can be countered by the fact that the state ensures the security and other general interests of its citizens by limiting their freedom. In other words, the state plays the role of a monopoly on restricting human freedom. In context, it is worth noting the works of such science fiction writers as Sheckley and Bradbury, especially the story “Ticket to Planet Tranai,” which describes a society with a radically different morality.

The widespread understanding of freedom as a “conscious necessity” is the only logically non-contradictory definition of freedom.

Intelligence

Reason is the ability of a material system to realize its existence in the environment and display, transmit in the form of signs and sign systems; this is the ability to measure the interdependencies and interactions of material systems, identifying patterns; is the ability, using certain patterns, to act and change environment according to your needs. (Sergey Rechka)

basis of synthesizing creative activity, creating new ideas that go beyond existing systems, giving the ability to discover and set goals (the ability to combine acquired knowledge and create new knowledge)

· the highest, essential for man as such, the ability to think universally, the ability of abstraction and generalization, which includes reason

Reason, consciousness, thinking, mind, in addition to their meanings in vocabulary, have one meaning--definition. And in this sense they are synonyms.

For the formation of thinking, four factors must be present simultaneously:

2. Sense organs (eyes for vision, nose for smell, ears for hearing, skin for touch, tongue for taste).

3. External reality (an object with which individuals interact in a way determined by society at a certain stage of development).

4. Society at a certain level of development. This level will, on average, determine the level of thinking of each individual in this society.

The listed factors create a model of the mind (consciousness). Without the participation of at least one of the listed factors, thinking (mind, consciousness...) is not formed. Thus, thinking is the process of combining sensory perception (sensation of things or phenomena), transmitted by the senses to the brain, with preliminary information about these things, through which awareness (understanding) of a particular thing or phenomenon is realized.

The human mind is his ability, as a biological species of a living organism, to exist as a social organism. A prerequisite for the emergence, existence and development of the mind is the continuous collective (joint) productive activity of man to provide for his material needs. Reason is inherent in the community of human individuals. Mind, consciousness, thinking are definitions related to an individual individual in a community. They show how a given individual compares with the level of development of the mind of the community to which he belongs. See “On the Human Mind”, Getsiu I. I., St. Petersburg, Aletheia, 2010

Mind is inseparable from consciousness, reflecting the properties of highly organized matter the world and oneself, and is a function-property of consciousness to analyze perceived ideas and synthesize new ideas from the resulting components. Reason is characterized by the direction of cognition of truth, as the order of things corresponding to reality. Reason is inherent in the desire for justice and rationality in the structure of the world, as an equal right to the existence of all phenomena of the world, within its own class - the level of organization of the phenomena of the world, with the priority of complexity - perfection of organization. That is, everything that exists has the right to exist, but the advantage of such a right is always on the side of a phenomenon that has a higher organization. For example, humanity, as a concept of a reasonable society, presupposes the same right of every person to a safe existence in the society of people, and after ensuring such rights - protection animals eaten by humans.

Mind is a state of (creative) intelligence (search engine) inherent in all living beings. The scientific precision of the term "state", as opposed to the term "capacity", is that the state is easily defined as a separate object from the mass, just like a block of ice floating in water. The term “state”, in considering the nature of reason, allows us to introduce the concept of “faith in reason”, which will further make it possible to build one culture on the foundations of religion and science. Holiness is also a state, on the basis of which the following conclusion can be drawn: I believe in reason, and if a possible god considers my faith to be incorrect, then he himself is more than reasonable; I do not need to believe in a possible God, just as a person walking on a bridge does not need to believe in the bridge, it is enough for him to believe in the strength of the material. The term “ability” is more suitable in considering the possibilities of living in the environment and procreation, the learning process.

Reason in Philosophy

Mind is one of the forms consciousness, self-aware reason, directed at itself and the conceptual content of its knowledge (Kant, Hegel). Reason expresses itself in principles, ideas and ideals. Reason should be distinguished from other forms of consciousness - contemplation, reason, self-consciousness and spirit. If reason as a thinking consciousness is directed towards the world and its main principle accepts the consistency of knowledge, equality with itself in thinking, then reason as reason, conscious of itself, correlates not only different contents with each other, but also itself with this content. Because of this, the mind can hold onto contradictions. Hegel believed that only reason finally achieves the true expression of truth as concrete, that is, including opposing characteristics in its unity.

Feeling

Feeling is a human emotional process, reflecting a subjective evaluative attitude towards material or abstract objects. Feelings are distinguished from affects, emotions and moods. In common parlance and in some phrases (for example, “sense organ”), feelings are also called sensations.

Feelings are the processes of internal regulation of human activity that reflect the meaning (meaning for the process of his life) that real or abstract, concrete or generalized objects have for him, or, in other words, the subject’s attitude towards them. Feelings necessarily have a conscious component in the form of subjective experience. Despite the fact that feelings are, in essence, a specific generalization of emotions, they are distinguished as an independent concept, since they have features that are not inherent in emotions in themselves.

Feelings reflect not an objective, but a subjective, usually unconscious assessment of an object. The emergence and development of feelings expresses the formation of stable emotional relationships (in other words, “emotional constants”) and is based on the experience of interaction with an object. Due to the fact that this experience can be contradictory (have both positive and negative episodes), feelings towards most objects are most often ambivalent.

Feelings can have different levels of specificity - from direct feelings about a real object, to feelings related to social values ​​and ideals. These different levels are associated with generalizations of the object of feelings that differ in form. Social institutions, social symbols that support their stability, some rituals and social acts play a significant role in the formation and development of the most generalized feelings. Like emotions, feelings have their own development and, although they have their biologically determined foundations, they are a product of human life in society, communication and education.

It is known that personality as a subject of knowledge is of interest not only to psychology, but also to other sciences that study man. Therefore, it makes sense to clarify the idea of ​​personality that has developed in these border disciplines.

In philosophy, a person’s personality is not considered as such; one must become one. Personality is one of the central concepts of sociology. It plays an important role in the "construction" of social knowledge, helping to understand why the human world is so different from the rest of the natural world and why it remains human only on the basis of preserving the richness of individual differences between people. The sociology of personality is noticeably influenced by philosophical concepts and psychological theories.

Philosophy operates more with the capacious concept of “man,” which includes his biological, mental, and cultural nature. Sociologists take into account, first of all, the social qualities that are formed in people in the process of living together (as a direct product of coexistence with others), somewhat abstracting from everything else.

Psychology pays attention to the individual differences of people: their temperament, character, behavioral characteristics and assessments, studying how and why they differ from each other. For a sociologist, “personality,” on the contrary, is what makes people similar to each other (that is, they note what is socially typical in people). Thus, we can say that, as a rule, the chain person - personality - individual reflects a peculiar division of labor of a philosopher, sociologist and psychologist, although each of them (studying his own) can use any of these terms. In other words, personality in sociology is something special.

In philosophy, “personality” (read: person), in accordance with established traditions, is considered as:

1) a product (of Nature, God or Society), a product of the conditions of existence, which can only know itself and should not try to change (an adapting person, adapting);

2) a creator, infinitely active, either meditating, changing his own conditions, or controlling his imagination about the conditions of his life and about himself (a person creating himself, self-producing);

3) an actor who transforms himself through instrumental, objective activity that connects his development with the outside world (a person who produces new objects and conveys his experience in objects).

In psychology, “personality” (read: individual) is the integrity of mental properties, processes, relationships that distinguish a given subject from another. For a psychologist, the potentialities of subjects are different, since both innate and acquired qualities of people are individual. Individuality reflects the uniqueness of a person’s biological and social properties, making him a unique actor (acting unit) of a certain group or community.

Both philosophy and psychology have a significant influence on the development of sociological ideas about personality, but their special view on this subject and specific terminology are used only at the level of special theories.

So, sociologists, as a rule, operate with the concepts of “social subject” and “personality” to describe the social essence and social qualities of a person.

In modern sociology, personality, as a subject (which, let us recall, can be individual - identical to “personality” and group - identical to “community”), means an active social principle, a certain socio-historical type of ability to act.

It is believed that personality, as a socially typical characteristic of people, has experienced a certain emotion along with the course of historical progress. Primitive man was characterized by adaptive, adaptive activities, while modern man has a much richer functional repertoire and generally plays an active transformative role in nature and society. We can say that the personality more and more fully manifested itself, formed and filled the person, tearing him out of the world of nature (desires and passions) and bringing him into the world of creativity, comprehension and understanding of the signs of the “other”. In this sense, personality as a social quality of a person became an increasingly concentrated substance of his special (social) nature.

Personality

Understanding the subject of personality psychology in Russian psychology (B.G. Ananyev, S.L. Vygotsky, B.F. Lomov, S.L. Rubinstein)

L. S. Vygotsky formulates the basic principles of cultural-historical psychology based on Marxism. Within the framework of this direction, the need was postulated to study personality directly in the process of development, occurring under the influence of history and culture. On the basis of this direction, the theory of activity was subsequently built. Laboratory led B.F. Lomova has done a great job of establishing engineering psychology as a psychological discipline. Fundamental research was carried out on the problems of information processing by a human operator, operational reliability, principles of taking into account the human factor in the design of various automated control systems, and many others were developed. Engineering psychological research has invigorated experimental psychology. The laboratory has become a generally recognized center for engineering psychology, uniting almost all emerging laboratories and scientific groups in this area throughout the country.

Ananyev Subject- individuality, including the individual, personality and subject. Personality- a component of individuality, its characteristics as a social individual, object and subject of the historical process. Personality is the “top” of the entire structure of human properties. Personal development is guided by the development of individuality.

Rubinstein- Item- personality as a subject of life.

Personality is considered in the activity in which it manifests itself, is formed, undergoing various changes in which the integrity of its structure is determined and consolidated. Activity imparts unity not only to the internal structure of the individual, but also integrity and consistency in the individual’s connections with the world. The personality does not dissolve in activity, through it it changes the world, building its relationships with it, other people, life as such. It is advisable to consider the personality not only as a subject of activity, but also as a subject life path and as a stable mental make-up of people. She independently organizes her life, bears responsibility for it, becoming more and more selective and unique.

Different approaches to understanding personality.

In psychology there are different approaches to understanding personality.

1. A personality can be described in terms of its motives and aspirations, which constitute its content<личного мира>, i.e., a unique system of personal meanings, individually unique ways of organizing external impressions and internal experiences.

2. Personality is considered as a system of traits - relatively stable, externally manifested characteristics of individuality, which are imprinted in the subject’s judgments about himself, as well as in the judgments of other people about him.

3. Personality is also described as active<Я>subject as a system of plans, relationships, orientation, semantic formations that regulate the exit of its behavior beyond the limits of the original plans.

4. Personality is also considered as a subject of personalization, i.e. the needs and abilities of the individual to cause changes in others

Functionalist approach of W. James.

Behaviorism

Social learning theory

The problem of the relationship between the concepts individual, subject, personality, individuality.

1. Man as an individual. The concept of a person as an individual usually expresses two main features:
1) man as a unique representative of other living beings, different from animals and being a product of phylogenetic and ontogenetic development, a bearer of species traits;
2) an individual representative of the human community, using tools, signs and through them mastering his own behavior and mental processes.

2. Man as a personality. This is a specific person who is a representative of a certain society, a certain social group, engaged in a specific type of activity, aware of his attitude to the environment and endowed with certain individual psychological characteristics.

3. Man as a subject. A person is always a subject (participant, performer) of the historical and social process as a whole, a subject of specific activity, in particular, a source of knowledge and transformation of objective reality. The activity itself in this case acts as a form of human activity, allowing him to improve the world around him and himself.
4. Man as an individual. Individuality is not something supra- or superpersonal. When they talk about individuality, they mean the originality of the individual. Usually the word “individuality” is used to define any dominant feature of a person that makes him different from those around him. Each person is individual, but the individuality of some manifests itself very clearly, while of others it is barely noticeable.

Structural and system-structural approaches to personality research.

Emerging at the beginning of the 20th century. the science of psychodiagnostics required a new approach to the study of personality, using a “language of description.” It became a structural approach. The essence of the structural approach is that scientists, studying personality traits, united them into groups called personality substructures. The structural approach to personality research made it possible to measure the so-called universal basic properties and made it possible to predict human behavior in the widest possible class of possible situations. The system-structural approach in psychological research is the implementation of a comprehensive study (approach) of a person, in which various components of a complex system are studied. Revealing the complexity of this approach, E.I. Stepanova (2000) considers the structure of personality or intelligence as “a hierarchical organization that manifests its properties in certain life conditions, where the latter should also be the object of study”

Behavioral direction.

The behavioral direction in practical psychology implements the principles of behaviorism. This direction works primarily with externally visible, observable human behavior and considers a person only as an object of influence in complete analogy with the natural scientific approach. The behavioral direction is based on the theories of I.P. Pavlov and B. Skinner and consists of modifying behavioral stereotypes through the use of the principles of learning theory (see →). Behavioral and emotional problems are understood as fixed as a result of the encouragement and reinforcement of maladaptive responses to environmental stimuli. The task is to eliminate or modify them. Initially, behavioral therapy used exclusively conditioning: classical (according to Pavlov) and operant. Currently, therapy in the behavioral approach is the same as in the cognitive-behavioral approach. The task of a behavioral (cognitive-behavioral) therapist is to change behavior that is unsatisfactory for a person. Psychotherapy begins with a detailed analysis of behavior. The purpose of the analysis is to obtain the most detailed possible scenario for the occurrence of a symptom, described in observable and measurable concepts of what, when, where, under what circumstances, in response to what, how often, how strongly, etc. Then, the triggering and symptom-supporting factors. Then a detailed step-by-step action plan is drawn up and implemented in joint and independent work. Compared to the psychodynamic approach, this approach is clearly directive.

42. Behavioral direction: imitation theory (N. Miller, J. Dollard) learning through modeling. An important subject of the theoretical constructions of Miller and Dollard is the problem of imitation, or imitation. The problem of imitation belongs to the circle of the first problems in the emerging social psychology at the turn. The initial increased interest of psychologists in this problem is not accidental: imitation is the most important mechanism of interaction, involved in the birth of a number of phenomena characterizing, in particular, socialization and conformity. Miller and Dollard, in Social Learning and Imitation, abandon the old tradition of defining imitation as an instinct and approaching it as a unitary process. They consider imitation as an object of instrumental learning and explain it by corresponding laws. According to A. Bandura, in order to acquire new reactions based on imitation, it is not necessary to reinforce the actions of the observer or the actions of the model; but reinforcement is necessary to strengthen and maintain the behavior formed through imitation. A. Bandura and R. Walters found that the visual learning procedure (that is, training in the absence of reinforcement or in the presence of indirect reinforcement of only one model) is especially effective for the acquisition of new social experience. Observational learning is important, according to Bandura, because it can be used to regulate and direct a child's behavior by providing him with the opportunity to imitate authoritative models. Bandura conducted many laboratory and field studies on childhood and youth aggressiveness. Children were shown films in which different patterns of adult behavior (aggressive and non-aggressive) were presented, which had different consequences (reward or punishment). The film showed, for example, how an adult aggressively handles toys. After watching the film, the children were left alone to play with toys similar to those they saw in the film. As a result, aggressive behavior in children who watched the film was greater and manifested itself more often than in children who did not watch the film. If in the film the aggressive behavior of adults was rewarded, the aggressive behavior of children increased. In another group of children who watched a film where aggressive behavior from adults was punished, it decreased. While a number of American scientists consider Bandura's theories of social learning as a concept consisting of smart hypotheses about the process of socialization.

43. Cognitivist theories of personality: J. Kelly’s theory of personal constructs. George Kelly applied a cognitive approach to personality psychology and showed that personality develops on the basis of cognitive processes. Concept of personal constructs: 1) A person is a researcher of the world, he builds hypotheses using constructs (for example, “bad - evil”) 2) The principle of constructive alternativeism - the reaction depends on the method of interpretation. A healthy person understands this, therefore he is well adapted to the changing reality. 3) Personal constructs are schemes with the help of which the subject interprets reality and predicts future events.

A well-adapted person is able to make his own constructs the subject of research. Constructs:

Permeable

(open to new experiences)

(most stable, primary)

Impenetrable

(closed to new experiences)

Peripheral

(less stable, secondary)

To study personal constructs, Kelly proposed a methodology - repertory grids. The repertory grid method is a research technique based on J. Kelly's theory of personal constructs and intended for personality analysis. The subject evaluates a set of objects, which primarily include people who are significant to him, using a set of constructs (rating scales).

44. Cognitive theories of personality: K. Lewin’s field theory. Field theory, which views personality as a complex energy field motivated by psychological forces and behaving selectively and creatively, was developed in the first half of the 20th century. Levin. The structure of personality is considered in Field Theory as a consequence of the differentiation of systems of psychological stress and is described using the spatial representation of a person and the mathematization of concepts. The ultimate goal of personality activity in Field Theory is to return a person to a state of balance. The main thing for Lewin was the position that intention is based on real needs. Often these may be more general needs that differ from person to person, for example, “the need to implement a decision once made.” K. Lewin emphasized that effective needs are those from which intention comes, i.e. needs that lead a person to make a decision.

Thus, the phenomenon of returning to an interrupted action and better reproduction of unfinished actions served Lewin as proof that for the nature of our mental processes their dynamics that arise in a given situation are essential. “The dynamic state, tension, is a decisive, and most importantly, determining factor in human mental activity.”

45. Dispositional theory of personality G.U. Allport. The dispositional direction in the study of personality is based on two general ideas. First is that people have a wide range of predispositions to respond in certain ways in different situations (that is, personality traits). This means that people demonstrate a certain consistency in their actions, thoughts and emotions, regardless of the passage of time, events and life experiences . Second The main idea of ​​the dispositional direction is related to the fact that no two people are exactly alike. the concept of personality was developed in part by emphasizing the characteristics that distinguished individuals from each other. One of the most influential adherents of the dispositional school, Gordon Allport, believed that each person is unique and that his uniqueness the best way can be understood through the definition of specific personality traits. Allport's emphasis on the uniqueness of the individual is, however, only one side of his theoretical position. Much attention is also paid to how human behavior is influenced by cognitive and motivational processes. Moreover, Allport's theory represents a combination of humanistic and individualistic approaches to the study of human behavior. Humanity manifests itself in an attempt to identify all aspects of a human being, including the potential for personal growth, overcoming oneself and self-realization. Individual approach reflected in Allport's desire to understand and predict the development of a real, specific personality. Allport believed that although traits and personal dispositions actually exist in a person, they are not directly observable and must be inferred from behavior.

Allport suggested that there is a certain principle that organizes attitudes, motives, evaluations and inclinations into a single whole. For this he is in coined the term “proprium”. Proprium is a positive, creative, growth-seeking property of human nature, it covers all aspects of the personality that contribute to the formation of a sense of inner unity. Allport identified seven different aspects involved in the development of the proprium: feeling of your body; sense of self-identity; sense of self-esteem; expansion of the self; self image; rational self-management; finally, a propriative desire.

46. ​​Factor theory of personality by H. Eysenck. The core of Eysenck's theory is the concept he developed that the elements of personality are arranged hierarchically. Eysenck built a four-level hierarchical system of behavior organization. Lower level- specific actions or thoughts, an individual way of behaving or thinking, which may or may not be characteristics of a person (drawing patterns in a notebook during a lecture may or may not be a characteristic of a person). Second level- these are habitual actions or thoughts, that is, reactions that are repeated under certain conditions. Habitual reactions are identified through factor analysis of specific reactions. Third level– trait – “an important, relatively constant personal property.” A trait is formed from several interrelated habitual reactions. (the habit of always completing tasks not only in school, but also in everything else in life = the trait of perseverance). Fourth, highest level Organizations of behavior are the level of types or superfactors. A type is formed from several interconnected traits. Theory of G. Yu. Eysenck.

In early studies Eysenck identified only two general types or superfactor: extraversion – type (E) and neuroticism – type (N). Later he identified the third type - psychoticism (P). Eysenck developed four personality questionnaires designed to measure superfactors. Extroversion/introversion. The extroverted type is characterized primarily by being sociable and impulsive, but also by being easy-going, lively, witty, optimistic, and other traits of people who enjoy being with others. Introverts are characterized by traits that are the opposite of those found in extroverts. Neuroticism/Stability. tendencies towards antisocial and antisocial behaviors, such as juvenile delinquency, childhood behavioral disorders, alcoholism and homosexuality, identical twins differ much less from each other than fraternal twins.

People who score high on neuroticism often tend to overreact emotionally to excitement and have difficulty returning to normal. Psychotism / Superego. People who score high on the P scale are often self-centered, cold, argumentative, aggressive, impulsive, hostile to others, suspicious, and antisocial. Those who show low levels of psychoticism (stronger superego) tend to be empathic, caring, cooperative, and socially well adjusted.

47. Factor theory of traits by R. Cattell. Cattell's theory of personality is based largely on psychometric procedures rather than clinical research. Using an inductive method, he collected quantitative information from three sources: registration real behavior people throughout their lives (L-data), people's self-reports (Q-data) and objective test results (T-data) and derived primary factors. These factors acquire psychological significance in the light of three categories of personality traits - temperament, ability and motivation. In general, Cattell identifies 35 first-order personality traits - 23 normal personality traits and 12 pathological traits. These factors correlate with each other, which makes it possible to repeat factor analysis and identify at least eight second-order traits. These primary and secondary factors in Cattell's theory are called "basic personality traits", but they are all predominantly temperamental traits.

48. Humanistic theory of A. Maslow. There are two main directions in the humanistic theory of personality. The first, “clinical” (focused primarily on the clinic), is presented in the views of psychologist K. Rogers. The founder of the second “motivational” direction is the American researcher A. Maslow.

A. Maslow, one of the leading psychologists in the field of motivation research in the USA, developed a hierarchy of needs. It consists of a number of steps. The first is physiological needs: lower, controlled by the organs of the body (breathing, food, sexual, self-defense needs). The second stage is the need for reliability: the desire for material security, health, security in old age, etc. The third is social needs. Her satisfaction is not objective and cannot be described. One person is satisfied with only minor contacts with other people, while another has a very strong need for communication. The fourth stage is the need for respect, awareness of one’s own dignity; here we are talking about prestige, social success. These needs are unlikely to be met by an individual; groups are required. The fifth stage is the need for personal development, self-realization, self-actualization, and understanding of one’s purpose.

49. Phenomenological theory of personality by K. Rogers. The phenomenological direction of personality theory emphasizes the idea that human behavior can only be understood in terms of his subjective perception and knowledge of reality. The phenomenological direction denies the idea that the world around us is something that really exists in itself as an unchanging reality for everyone. A person's feelings are not a direct reflection of the world of reality; actual reality is the reality observed and interpreted by the responding organism. Consequently, according to Rogers, each person interprets reality in accordance with his subjective perception, and his inner world is fully accessible only to himself. In conclusion, it may be added that Rogers, unlike Kelly, avoided making any statements about the nature of “objective” reality. He was only interested in psychological reality (that is, how a person perceives and interprets any information received through the senses), and he left objective reality to philosophers.

The concept of personality in philosophy, sociology and psychology.

Personality(philosopher) - the internal definition of an individual being in its independence, as having reason, will and a unique character, with the unity of self-consciousness.

§ In the early Christian period, the concepts of “hypostasis” and “face” were identified (before them, the concept of “face” in theology and philosophy was descriptive, it could be called the mask of an actor or the legal role that a person performed) - the emergence of a new concept of “personality”,

§ In medieval philosophy, personality was understood as the essence of God

§ In modern European philosophy, a person was understood as a citizen

§ In the philosophy of romanticism, the individual was understood as a hero.

Sociology - The emergence of the concept of “personality” is associated with the ancient theater, where the word “persona” (personality) meant a mask that an actor wore when playing the role of a warrior, slave, jealous person, envious person, etc. At the same time, the person, on the one hand, masked his self, and on the other, identified himself with a certain social group. IN modern science There are two approaches to defining personality. The first, formal-logical, corresponds to formal logic, “common sense.” In accordance with this approach, a person is defined through a broader, generic concept - “man”, and then the characteristics that distinguish a person from a person in general are listed. The second approach can be called dialectical-logical . Personality is determined through the dialectic of the general, the particular and the individual, as a result of which the personality appears as something special, taken in the social aspect.

Psychology - Personality is a set of developed habits and preferences, mental attitude and tone, sociocultural experience and acquired knowledge, a set of psychophysical traits and characteristics of a person, his archetype that determines everyday behavior and connections with society and nature.