Presentation on the topic "alternative energy sources." Presentation on the topic “Alternative sources of electricity Problems of alternative energy sources presentation
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private educational institution Komashinsky secondary school, Slavyanka village 2010 Completed by 11th grade student Vladimir Bortkevich Alternative sources of electricitySlide 2
Introduction: On the threshold of the 21st century, people increasingly began to think about what would become the basis of their existence in new era. We can identify many components that play vital role in people's lives, but ENERGY occupies a special place in it. Due to the shortage and limitation of fuel resources, a transition to non-traditional (alternative energy sources) is emerging. In my work, I decided to consider the main possibilities of using unconventional methods of energy production, which are not yet popular in modern world, but are necessary in the future.
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Problematic questions: What is electric power? What are the types of “non-traditional” energy? Ways to get it. Problems of developing alternative sources of electricity in our country? General problems in the development of “non-traditional” energy in our country?
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What is electricity? Electric power is an integral part of the energy sector, the task of which is to generate electricity at power plants and transmit it to consumers via power lines. Energy is the most important part of human life. It is the basis for the development of production forces in any state. Electric power industry Electricity production Electricity transmission Use of electricity Hydroelectric power stations AC lines industry transport agriculture household TPP NPP DC lines
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Electricity is the only industry produced at power plants, the products of which cannot be stored. Type of power plants Construction and operation Work in the energy system Impact on the environment Thermal (TPP) They are built quickly and cheaply, but consume a large amount of fuel, hence the costs of extracting and transporting fuel. They operate continuously, but require long stops during repairs. Coal-fired power plants emit a lot of solid waste and harmful gases into the atmosphere. Hydraulic (hydroelectric power plants) take longer to build and are more expensive than all types of power plants. They use the energy of falling water, the operating personnel is small, and the cost of electricity is minimal. Can cover heavy loads, easily turning on at the right time. Flooding of river valleys—especially valuable lands—occurs; regulation of river flow. Nuclear power plants take a long time to build and are expensive, but electricity is cheaper than thermal power plants. Uses uranium, does not depend on fuel resources, requires precision equipment. Qualified workers. When operating without incident, the impact on the environment is negligible; disposal of radioactive waste is required.
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Electricity production at stations different types. The diagram shows that the largest amount comes to thermal power plants, then comes hydroelectric power plants, and the last is the nuclear power plant.
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Alternative sources of electricity Scientists warn: proven reserves of organic fuel at the current rate of growth in energy consumption will only last for 70-130 years. It is these conclusions that once again confirm the need for a speedy transition to alternative sources of electricity.
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What are the types of “non-traditional” energy? Ways to get it. The main types of “non-traditional” energy processed into electricity: solar, wind, geothermal, hydrogen, ocean thermal energy, tidal energy, sea currents, etc.
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Solar energy Solar energy is the kinetic energy of radiation generated as a result of reactions in the interior of the Sun. Methods of obtaining electricity and heat from solar radiation. 1.Generating electricity using photocells. 2. Solar thermal energy - Heating of a surface that absorbs solar rays and subsequent distribution and use of heat. 3. The “solar sail” can convert solar rays into kinetic energy in vacuum. 4. Thermal air power plants (conversion of solar energy into air flow energy). 5. Solar balloon power plants (generation of water vapor inside the balloon balloon due to heating of the balloon surface by solar radiation).
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Wind energy Wind energy is the enormous energy of moving air masses. The operating principle of wind turbines is very simple: the blades, which rotate due to the force of the wind, transmit mechanical energy through the shaft to an electric generator. That, in turn, generates electrical energy.
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In the mid-90s of the last century, in the territory of the Khasansky district of the Primorsky Territory in the village of Slavyanka, a wind turbine was installed at the Road Repair and Construction Administration enterprise under the leadership of Loponikov, but due to not taking into account the wind rose, the wind turbine was not put into commercial operation .
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Geothermal energy Geothermal energy is the production of electricity, as well as thermal energy from the thermal energy contained in the bowels of the earth. In volcanic areas, circulating water overheats above boiling temperatures at relatively shallow depths and rises through cracks to the surface, sometimes manifesting itself in the form of geysers.
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There are the following fundamental possibilities for using the heat of the earth's depths. Water or a mixture of water and steam, depending on their temperature, can be used for hot water supply and heating, for generating electricity, or for all three purposes simultaneously.
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Tidal energy The strategy for optimal operation of a tidal power plant (TPP) is simple: accumulate water in a reservoir behind the dam during high tides and use it to produce electricity when the “peak consumption” in unified power systems occurs, thereby easing the load on other power plants.
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Thermal energy of the ocean Mini-OTEC and OTEC-1 installations have been created (OTEC - initial letters English words Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion, i.e. Conversion of thermal energy of the ocean - we are talking about conversion into electrical energy). This is one huge pipe, at the top of which there is a round machine room, where all the necessary devices for energy conversion are located.
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The upper end of the cold water pipeline will be located in the ocean at a depth of 25–50 m. The turbine room is designed around the pipe at a depth of about 100 m. Turbine units operating on ammonia vapor, as well as all other equipment, will be installed there.
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Energy of sea currents The inexhaustible reserves of kinetic energy of sea currents accumulated in the oceans and seas can be converted into mechanical and electrical energy using turbines submerged in water (like windmills “submerged” in the atmosphere).
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Hydropower “Mini-hydroelectric power stations” can be located on small rivers or even streams, their electric generators will operate with small differences in water or driven only by the force of the current. These same “mini-hydroelectric power plants” can also be installed on large rivers with relatively fast flows.
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Wave energy A vertical pipe is installed on the bottom of the sea or lake, in the underwater part of which a “window” is made; getting into it, a deep wave (and this is an almost constant phenomenon) compresses the air in the mine, and it turns the generator turbine. During reverse movement, the air in the turbine is rarefied, driving the second turbine. Thus, the wave power plant operates continuously in almost any weather, and the current is transmitted to the shore via an underwater cable.
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Hydrothermal energy The principle of obtaining energy from hydrothermal power plants. This requires an installation that operates on the principle of “refrigerator in reverse.” Hot steam, which is formed as a result of heat exchange, condenses, its temperature rises to 110 C, and then it can be used either on the turbines of power plants, or to heat water in central heating radiators to 60- 65 C.
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Controlled fusion Controlled fusion uses nuclear energy released when light nuclei such as hydrogen or its isotopes deuterium and tritium fuse together. (The fusion reaction of deuterium with tritium D + T = He + n, which results in the formation of a helium nucleus, He, and a neutron.).
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Hydrogen – the fuel of the future Hydrogen can be considered an ideal fuel. It is available wherever there is water. When hydrogen is burned, water is produced, which can be decomposed back into hydrogen and oxygen, and this process does not cause any environmental pollution.
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At the moment, hydrogen is the most developed “fuel of the future”. There are several reasons for this: during the oxidation of hydrogen, water is formed as a by-product, and hydrogen can be extracted from it. And if you consider that 73% of the Earth's surface is covered with water, then we can consider that hydrogen is an inexhaustible fuel. It is also possible to use hydrogen to carry out thermonuclear fusion, which has been occurring on our Sun for several billion years and provides us with solar energy.
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Problems of developing alternative sources of electricity in our country? In 1990, the share of APE accounted for approximately 0.05% of the total energy balance (i.e., approximately 30 times less than in the United States). But what are the problems with this situation for the alternative electric power industry in Russia? 1. The country does not have an industry that unites all disparate developments into a single strategic plan. 2. There is practically no strategy for a full-scale transition to alternative energy. 3. The problem of financing is also relevant and the most important.
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But still, in our country there are stations that generate energy from alternative sources, despite the fact that their share is small and insignificant. Underground heat or geothermal energy is used in Kamchatka.
During the existence of our civilization, traditional energy sources have been replaced many times with new, more advanced ones. And not because the old source has been exhausted. The sun always shone and warmed man: and yet one day people tamed fire and began to burn wood. Then the wood gave way coal. Wood supplies seemed limitless, but steam engines required more high-calorie “feed.” But this was just a stage. Coal is soon losing its leadership in the energy market to oil. And here’s a new twist: these days, the leading types of fuel are still oil and gas. But for every new cubic meter of gas or ton of oil, you need to go further north or east, bury yourself deeper into the ground. It’s no wonder that oil and gas will cost us more and more every year. Replacement? We need a new energy leader. They will undoubtedly be nuclear sources. Uranium reserves, if, say, we compare them with coal reserves, do not seem to be so large. But per unit weight it contains millions of times more energy than coal. The energy path of humanity is thorny, difficult, and indirect. But we believe that we are on the way to the Era of Energy Abundance and that all obstacles, obstacles and difficulties will be overcome. The story about energy can be endless, with innumerable alternative forms of its use, provided that we must develop effective and economical methods for this. It is not so important what your opinion is about the needs of energy, about energy sources, its quality, and cost. We, apparently, should only agree with what the learned sage, whose name remains unknown, said: “No simple solutions, there is only a reasonable choice."
The presentation reflects research material on the topic “Alternative Energy Sources”. The presentation shows all the sources of alternative energy used by people in the modern world. The material can be used in geography, physics, ecology, and classroom lessons.
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Presentation. "Alternative Energy Sources". Completed by: 8th grade students of the Ilkinsky Secondary School. Nazarova Arina, Paranina Ekaterina. Head: Zashkalova S.I. 2013-2014. http://www.posternazakaz.ru/shop/makeframe/80662/573/82/
Alternative energy sources. Wind energy Geothermal energy Solar energy Bioenergy Hydroenergy Hydrogen energy
Wind power. Wind energy is a branch of energy specializing in the use of wind energy - the kinetic energy of air masses in the atmosphere. http://www.energypicturesonline.com/watermark.php?i=2241 Wind turbine.
http://www.energypicturesonline.com/watermark.php?i=2272 Wind energy. Wind energy uses the force of the wind to drive the blades of wind turbines. The rotation of the turbine blades is converted into electrical current using an electrical generator. IN old mill, wind energy was used to power mechanical machines to do physical work, such as crushing grain. Now, electric currents driven by large-scale wind power plants are used in national electrical grids, as well as small individual turbines are used to provide electricity to remote areas or individual homes.
http://www.energypicturesonline.com/watermark.php?i=2142 Pros. Wind energy does not produce any pollution since wind is a renewable energy source. Wind farms can be built offshore. Minuses. Wind energy is intermittent. If the wind speed decreases, the movement of the turbine slows down and less energy is generated. Large wind farms can have a negative impact on scenery.
Solar energy. Solar energy is the energy of the sun; it is an almost endless source as long as our star shines. Thousands of joules of heat rush in our direction. http://pics.posternazakaz.ru/pnz/product/med/2d2c5c1e1088bb3241178b7421d0754b.jpg
Energy of sun. Solar energy is commonly used for heating, cooking, electricity generation, and even desalination. sea water. The sun's rays are captured by solar installations and the sunlight is converted into electricity, heat. http://20c.com.ua/images/sun_battery.jpg
Pros. Solar energy is a renewable resource. As long as the sun exists, its energy will reach the Earth. Solar energy does not pollute either water or air because there is no chemical reaction resulting from burning fuel. Solar energy can be used very effectively for practical applications such as heating and lighting. Cons Solar energy does not produce energy unless the Sun is shining. Night and cloudy days will severely limit the amount of energy produced. Solar power plants can be very expensive. http://www.ecogroup.com.ua/sites/ecogroup.com.ua/files/u1/1307883633_solar-panels.jpg
Hydropower. Hydropower is the energy of falling water and ways to convert it into electricity. http://ukrelektrik.com/_pu/7/25618938.jpg
Energy of water. Generating electricity from moving water is one of the cleanest and most affordable renewable energy sources. This is a good viable option if you live on a river with a fairly steady flow. http://myrt.ru/news/uploads/posts/2008-12/1230382583_gidroelektrostancia.jpg
Geothermal energy. Geothermal energy is a branch of energy based on the production of electrical and thermal energy from the thermal energy contained in the bowels of the earth at geothermal stations. Considered a renewable energy source. http://www.google.ru/imgres?imgurl=http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/NesjavellirPowerPlant_edit2.jpg/300px-NesjavellirPowerPlant_edit2.jpg&imgrefurl=http://ru. wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%2593%25D0%25B5%25D0%25BE%25D1%2582%25D0%25B5%25D1%2580%25D0%25BC%25D0%25B0%25D0%25BB%25D1%258C%25D0%25BD %25D0%25B0%25D1%258F_%25D1%258D%25D0%25BD%25D0%25B5%25D1%2580%25D0%25B3%25D0%25B5%25D1%2582%25D0%25B8%25D0%25BA%25D0%25B0&h=2 00&w =300&sz=24&tbnid=Jy6JxE56uKNZMM:&tbnh=90&tbnw=135&prev=/search%3Fq%3D%25D0%2593%25D0%25B5%25D0%25BE%25D1%2582%25D0%25B5%25D1%2580%25D0 %25BC%25D0% 25B0%25D0%25BB%25D1%258C%25D0%25BD%25D0%25B0%25D1%258F%2B%25D1%258D%25D0%25BD%25D0%25B5%25D1%2580%25D0%25B3%25D0%25B5%25D1% 2582%25D0%25B8%25D0%25BA%25D0%25B0.%2B%2B%25D0%25BA%25D0%25B0%25D1%2580%25D1%2582%25D0%25B8%25D0%25BD%25D0%25BA%25D0%25B8 %26tbm%3Disch%26tbo%3Du&zoom=1&q=%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1% 8C%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F+%D1%8D%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA% D0%B0.++%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B8&docid=phieHb0jE2WXQM&hl=ru&sa=X&ei=uJlsT62YAYrR4QS96pTAAg&ved=0CCUQ9QEwAA&dur=72
Energy of the Earth. Pros. When done correctly, geothermal energy does not produce harmful byproducts. Geothermal power plants are typically small and have little impact on the natural landscape. Cons If done incorrectly, geothermal energy can produce contaminants. Improper drilling into the ground releases hazardous minerals and gases. http://www.google.ru/imgres?imgurl=http://www.inverter-china.com/ru-blog/upload/geothermal-energy.gif&imgrefurl=http://www.inverter-china.com/ ru-blog/articles/Geothermal-power/about-Geothermal-power.html&h=295&w=336&sz=20&tbnid=wO9cqTlo3jF6HM:&tbnh=90&tbnw=103&prev=/search%3Fq%3D%25D0%2593%25D0%25B5%25D0%25BE %25D1%2582%25D0%25B5%25D1%2580%25D0%25BC%25D0%25B0%25D0%25BB%25D1%258C%25D0%25BD%25D0%25B0%25D1%258F%2B%25D1%258D%25D0%25BD %25D0%25B5%25D1%2580%25D0%25B3%25D0%25B5%25D1%2582%25D0%25B8%25D0%25BA%25D0%25B0.%2B%2B%25D0%25BA%25D0%25B0%25D1%2580% 25D1%2582%25D0%25B8%25D0%25BD%25D0%25BA%25D0%25B8%26tbm%3Disch%26tbo%3Du&zoom=1&q=%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5 %D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F+%D1%8D%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0 %B3%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0.++%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD% D0%BA%D0%B8&docid=U4m-XpSiQew5mM&hl=ru&sa=X&ei=uJlsT62YAYrR4QS96pTAAg&ved=0CCsQ9QEwAg&dur=394
Bioenergy. Bioenergy is a branch of the electric power industry based on the use of biofuel from various organic substances, mainly organic waste. http://www.google.ru/imgres?q=%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B8+%D1%8D %D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B8+%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%81%D1 %81%D1%8B&hl=ru&newwindow=1&sa=X&biw=1567&bih=778&tbm=isch&prmd=imvns&tbnid=heAWuowf coRswM:&imgrefurl=http://info-site.my1.ru/publ/11-1-0-329&docid=bB0G7Xw634vIQM&imgur l=http ://www.buzzle.com/img/articleImages/325208-14112-35.jpg&w=350&h=223&ei=mpxsT9isKaGg4gTCyJTAAg&zoom=1&iact=rc&dur=456&sig=107568240252406074391&page=2&tbnh=13 9&tbnw=197&start=30&ndsp=36&ved=1t:429,r :33,s:30&tx=108&ty=75
Biomass Organic materials from plants or animals can be used to create energy that can be converted into electricity. Obviously, the combustion process is all bad for the environment, but organic matter also burns much cleaner than fossil fuels. http://www.google.ru/imgres?q=%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B8+%D1%8D %D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B8+%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%81%D1 %81%D1%8B&start=66&hl=ru&newwindow=1&sa=X&biw=1567&bih=778&tbm=isch&prmd=imvns&tbnid=QWPJkZuBF7cFxM:&imgrefurl=http://aenergy.ru/1724&docid=jgjAC40VNl70SM&imgurl=http://aenerg y.ru/wp-content /uploads/2009/08/article-18-08-09-2.JPG&w=586&h=279&ei=sJxsT7mXJrDQ4QTeo6nAAg&zoom=1
Hydrogen energy. Hydrogen energy is an actively developing type of energy; energy production and consumption are based on the use of hydrogen, which in turn is formed during the decomposition of water. http://www.google.ru/imgres?imgurl=http://energokeeper.com/assets/images/0100/0015.jpg&imgrefurl=http://energokeeper.com/vodorodnaya-energetika.html&h=225&w=300&sz= 23&tbnid=k3YgRbJbF24XBM:&tbnh=93&tbnw=124&prev=/search%3Fq%3D%25D0%25BA%25D0%25B0%25D1%2580%25D1%2582%25D0%25B8%25D0%25BD%25D0%25BA%2 5D0%25B8%2B %25D0%2592%25D0%25BE%25D0%25B4%25D0%25BE%25D1%2580%25D0%25BE%25D0%25B4%25D0%25BD%25D0%25B0%25D1%258F%2B%25D1%258D%25D0%25BD %25D0%25B5%25D1%2580%25D0%25B3%25D0%25B5%25D1%2582%25D0%25B8%25D0%25BA%25D0%25B0.%26tbm%3Disch%26tbo%3Du&zoom=1&q=%D0%BA%D0 %B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B8+%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE %D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F+%D1%8D%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0 %BA%D0%B0.&docid=Mmh6ufKHBJO_xM&hl=ru&sa=X&ei=U7hsT8GRO8K2hQfqrKCkBw&ved=0CCsQ9QEwAg&dur=141
Conclusion. Alternative energy sources such as solar and wind can help reduce energy costs. Read about current alternative energy technologies and what future energy sources will help you run your home efficiently. Alternative or renewable energy sources show significant promise in reducing the amount of toxins that are byproducts of energy use. Not only do they protect against harmful by-products, but by using alternative energy sources, many of the natural resources that we currently use as energy sources are conserved.
Resources Alternative energy. 1. http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?hl=ru&langpair=en%7Cru&rurl=translate.google.ru&u=http://saveenergy.about.com/od/alternativeenergysources/a/altenergysource.htm&usg=ALkJrhgt0WEAMR14gV7RNqd1FrqDtz4DKQ 2 . http://cyberenergy.ru/ 1. translate.googleusercontent.com/ translate_c?hl = ru&langpair =en%7Cru&rurl= translate.google.ru&u =http://homerenovations.about.com/od/renewableenergysystems/a/Home -Renewable-Energy-Systems.htm&usg=ALkJrhg7W0B9ajHdq0T7ZDs1-HFcNJ2zqA Renewable energy.
Contents of the presentation: I. Introduction II. Nuclear energy III. Oil and coal IV. Development problems V. Transition to alternative sources VI. Alternative energy sources: i. Solar energy ii. Wind iii. Hydrogen iv. Controlled thermonuclear fusion v. Hydropower vi .Tidal energy vii.Wave energy viii.Geothermal energy ix.Hydrothermal energy VII.Conclusion
Oil and coal Oil Proven oil reserves in the world are estimated at 140 billion tons, and annual production is about 3.5 billion tons. However, it is hardly worth predicting the onset of a global crisis in 40 years due to the depletion of oil in the bowels of the Earth, because economic statistics operate on the figures of proven reserves. And this is not all of the planet’s reserves. Coal There is no unified system for accounting for coal reserves and its classification. At the beginning of the 90s, according to MIREK, about 1040 billion tons. The overwhelming majority of proven reserves of brown coal and its production are concentrated in industrialized countries.
Development problems The scale of extraction and consumption of energy resources, metals, water and air to produce the amount of energy necessary for humanity is enormous, and resource reserves are rapidly declining. The problem of rapid depletion of organic natural energy resources is especially acute. Other important problem modern industrial society - ensuring the preservation of nature, clean water and air.
Transition to alternative sources The main reasons indicating the importance of a speedy transition to renewable energy sources: Global-ecological: the detrimental impact of traditional energy production technologies on the environment Political: a country that has mastered alternative energy can claim world leadership and actually dictate prices for fuel resources; Economic: the transition to alternative technologies in the energy sector will preserve the country's fuel resources for processing in the chemical and other industries. Social: the population size and density are constantly growing. At the same time, it is difficult to find areas for construction of nuclear power plants and state district power plants where energy production would be profitable and safe for the environment. Evolutionary-historical: traditional energy seems to be a dead end; For the evolutionary development of society, it is necessary to immediately begin a gradual transition to alternative energy sources.
Solar energy Work is underway to create solar power plants, to use solar energy for heating houses, etc. existing solar cells have relatively low efficiency and are very expensive to manufacture. rays
Wind Disadvantages Wind energy is highly dispersed in space, so wind power plants are needed. The wind is very unpredictable - it often changes direction and suddenly dies down even in the windiest areas of the globe. Wind power plants are not harmless: they interfere with the flights of birds and insects, make noise, and reflect radio waves with rotating blades. The advantages of its main advantage are environmental friendliness; wind power plants have been developed that can operate efficiently in the lightest winds
Controlled thermonuclear fusion Nuclear fusion reactions are widespread in nature, being a source of energy for stars. Nuclear fusion has already been mastered by man under earthly conditions, but not yet for the production of peaceful energy, but for the production of weapons it is used in hydrogen bombs.
Energy from tides It is estimated that the tides can potentially provide humanity with approximately 70 million billion kilowatt-hours per year. The first tidal power plant with a capacity of 240 MW was launched in 1966 in France at the mouth of the Rance River, which flows into the English Channel, where the average tidal amplitude is 8.4 m.
The planet's underground heat is a fairly well-known and already used source of clean energy. In Russia, the first geothermal power plant with a capacity of 5 MW was built in 1966 in the south of Kamchatka, in the valley of the Pauzhetka River. In 1980, its capacity was already 11 MW. Geothermal energy
Hydrothermal energy In addition to geothermal energy, the heat of water is actively used. Water is always at least a few degrees warmer, and in summer it heats up to 25 C. To use this heat, you need an installation that works like a refrigerator in reverse. It is known that a refrigerator pumps heat out of its closed chamber and releases it into the environment.
Conclusion Today there are several basic concepts for solving the problem. –Expansion of the network of uranium fuel stations. –Transition to the use of thorium-232 as nuclear fuel, which is more common in nature than uranium. –Transition to fast neutron nuclear reactors, which could provide nuclear fuel production for more than 3,000 years. –Mastering thermonuclear reactions, during which energy is released in the process of converting hydrogen into helium.
Wind energy is a branch of energy specializing in the use of wind energy - the kinetic energy of air masses in the atmosphere. Wind turbine http: //www. energypicturesonline. com/watermark. php? i=2241
Wind energy uses the force of the wind to drive the blades of wind turbines. The rotation of the turbine blades is converted into electrical current using an electrical generator. In the old mill, wind power was used to power mechanical machines to do physical work, such as crushing grain. Now, electric currents driven by large-scale wind power plants are used in national electrical grids, as well as small individual turbines are used to provide electricity to remote areas or individual homes. http://www. energypicturesonline. com/watermark. php? i=2272
Pros. Wind energy does not produce any pollution since wind is a renewable energy source. Wind farms can be built offshore. Minuses. Wind energy is intermittent. If the wind speed decreases, the movement of the turbine slows down and less energy is generated. Large wind farms can have a negative impact on scenery. http://www. energypicturesonline. com/watermark. php? i=2142
Solar energy. Solar energy is the energy of the sun; it is an almost endless source as long as our star shines. Thousands of joules of heat rush in our direction. http://pics. posternazakaz. ru/pnz/product/med/2 d 2 c 5 c 1 e 1 088 bb 3241178 b 7421 d 0754 b. jpg
Energy of sun. Solar energy is commonly used for heating, cooking, electricity generation, and even in seawater desalination. The sun's rays are captured by solar installations and the sunlight is converted into electricity, heat. http: //20 p.m. com. ua/images/sun_battery. jpg
Pros. Solar energy is a renewable resource. As long as the sun exists, its energy will reach the Earth. Solar energy does not pollute either water or air because there is no chemical reaction resulting from burning fuel. Solar energy can be used very effectively for practical applications such as heating and lighting. Cons Solar energy does not produce energy unless the Sun is shining. Night and cloudy days will severely limit the amount of energy produced. Solar power plants can be very expensive. http://www. ecogroup. com. ua/sites/ecogroup. com. ua/files/u 1 /1307883633_solar-panels. jpg
Energy of water. Generating electricity from moving water is one of the cleanest and most affordable renewable energy sources. This is a good viable option if you live on a river with a fairly steady flow. http://myrt. ru/news/uploads/posts/200812/1230382583_gidroelektrostancia. jpg
Geothermal energy is a branch of energy based on the production of electrical and thermal energy from the thermal energy contained in the bowels of the earth at geothermal stations. Considered a renewable energy source.
Pros. Energy of the Earth. When done correctly, geothermal energy does not produce harmful byproducts. Geothermal power plants are typically small and have little impact on the natural landscape. Cons If done incorrectly, geothermal energy can produce contaminants. Improper drilling into the ground releases hazardous minerals and gases.
Bioenergy is a branch of the electric power industry based on the use of biofuel from various organic substances, mainly organic waste. http://www. google. ru/imgres? q=%D 0%BA%D 0%B 0%D 1%82%D 0%B 8%D 0%BD%D 0 %BA%D 0%B 8+%D 1%8 D%D 0 %B 5%D 1%80%D 0%B 3%D 0%B 8+%D 0%B 1%D 0 %B 8%D 0%BE%D 0%BC%D 0%B 0% D 1%81%D 1%8 B&hl=ru&newwindow=1&sa=X&biw =1567&bih=778&tbm=isch&prmd=imvns&tbnid=he. AWuowfco. Rsw. M: &imgrefurl=http: //inf o-site. my 1. ru/publ/11 -1 -0329&docid=b. B 0 G 7 Xw 634 v. IQM&imgurl=http: //www. buzzle. com/img/article. Images/3252081411235. jpg&w=350&h=223&ei=mpxs. T 9 is. Ka. Gg 4 g. TCy. JTAAg&zoom=1&iact=rc&dur=456&sig=1075 68240252406074391&page=2&tbnh=139&tbnw=197&start=30&ndsp=36&ved=1 t: 429, r: 33, s: 30&tx=108&ty=75
Biomass Organic materials from plants or animals can be used to create energy that can be converted into electricity. Obviously, the combustion process is all bad for the environment, but organic matter also burns much cleaner than fossil fuels. http://www. google. ru/imgres? q=%D 0%BA%D 0%B 0%D 1%82%D 0%B 8 %D 0%BD%D 0%BA%D 0%B 8+%D 1%8 D%D 0 %B 5%D 1%80%D 0%B 3%D 0 %B 8%D 0%B 8+%D 0%B 1%D 0%B 8%D 0%BE%D 0%BC% D 0%B 0%D 1%81% D 1%8 B&start=66&hl=ru&newwindow=1&sa=X&biw=1567&bih=778&tbm=isc h&prmd=imvns&tbnid=QWPJk. Zu. BF 7 c. Fx. M: &imgrefurl=http: //aenergy. ru/1724 &docid=jgj. AC 40 VNl 70 SM&imgurl=http: //aenergy. ru/wpcontent/uploads/2009/08/article-18 -08 -092. JPG&w=586&h=279&ei=s. Jxs. T 7 m. XJr. DQ 4 QTeo 6 n. AAg&zoom=1
Hydrogen energy is an actively developing type of energy; energy production and consumption are based on the use of hydrogen, which in turn is formed during the decomposition of water. http://www. google. ru/imgres? imgurl=http: //energokeeper. com/assets/images/0100/0015. jpg&imgrefurl=http://energokeeper. com/vodorodnayaenergetika. html&h=225&w=300&sz=23&tbnid=k 3 Yg. Rb. Jb. F 24 XBM: &tbnh=93&tbnw=124&prev=/search%3 Fq%3 D% 25 D 0%25 BA%25 D 0%25 B 0%25 D 1%2582%25 D 0%25 B 8%25 D 0%25 BD%25 D 0%25 BA%25 D 0%25 B 8%2 B% 25 D 0%2592%25 D 0%25 BE%25 D 0%25 B 4%25 D 0%25 BE %25 D 1%2580%25 D 0%25 BE%25 D 0%25 B 4%25 D 0%25 BD%25 D 0%25 B 0%25 D 1%258 F%2 B%25 D 1 %258 D%25 D 0%25 B 5%25 D 1%2580%25 D 0%25 B 3%25 D 0%25 B 5%25 D 1%2582%25 D 0%25 B 8%25 D 0%25 BA%25 D 0%25 B 0. %26 tbm%3 Disch%26 tbo%3 Du&zoom=1&q=%D 0%BA%D 0%B 0% D 1%80%D 1%82% D 0%B 8%D 0%BD%D 0%BA%D 0%B 8+%D 0%92%D 0%BE%D 0%B 4%D 0%BE%D 1%80%D 0%BE%D 0%B 4 %D 0%BD%D 0%B 0%D 1%8 F+%D 1%8 D%D 0%B 5%D 1%80%D 0%B 3% D 0%B 5%D 1%82%D 0%B 8%D 0%BA%D 0% B 0. &docid=Mmh 6 uf. KHBJO_x. M&hl=ru&sa=X&ei=U 7 hs. T 8 GRO 8 K 2 h. Qfqr. KCk. Bw&ved=0 CCs. Q 9 QEw. Ag&dur=141
Conclusion. Alternative energy sources such as solar and wind can help reduce energy costs. Read about current alternative energy technologies and what future energy sources will help you run your home efficiently. Alternative or renewable energy sources show significant promise in reducing the amount of toxins that are byproducts of energy use. Not only do they protect against harmful by-products, but by using alternative energy sources, many of the natural resources that we currently use as energy sources are conserved.
TERMINOLOGY OF RENEWABLE ENERGY Renewable energy sources (RES) are energy sources generated on the basis of constantly existing or periodically occurring processes in nature, as well as the life cycle of flora and fauna and the life of human society. There are three global energy sources: solar energy; the warmth of the Earth; energy of the orbital motion of the planets Note: solar radiation is more than 1000 times more powerful than others.
RES usually include: RES of solar origin: The actual energy of solar radiation Hydraulic energy of rivers Wind energy Biomass energy Ocean energy (water temperature difference, waves, difference in salinity of sea and fresh water) Non-solar RES include: geothermal energy, tidal energy In addition, RES include various waste and low-grade heat sources in combination with heat pumps
Electricity production ENERGY Motor fuel Heat production QUESTION: Is it possible to build an energy sector that meets the modern needs of humanity using renewable energy sources? (excluding natural gas, oil, coal) Solar energy, Wind energy, Biomass, Geothermal energy, Mini and micro-hydroelectric power plants, Natural and waste heat using heat pumps Geothermal energy, Ocean energy Hydrogen produced by electrolysis from water using various renewable energy sources and from biomass (thermochemical processing) Biofuel from biomass ANSWER: In principle, YES! But there are many but...!
FACTORS IN FAVOR OF RES: ü Huge resources of all types of RES, many times exceeding the foreseeable needs of humanity ü Availability anywhere in the world of one or another RES or their combination ü Environmental cleanliness ü Proven, at least at the demonstration level, viability of technologies, and in some cases, high competitiveness ü Possibility of building both centralized and decentralized (autonomous) energy supply systems based on RES MAIN PROBLEMS OF WIDE COMMERCIALIZATION OF RES (temporary and related mainly to the need to compete with traditional energy technologies based on still relatively cheap fossil fuels) : ü High cost of energy production (electricity, heat, motor fuel), despite the initial “free” energy ü Lack of development of some technologies due to insufficient R&D funding
Conclusion: the use of renewable energy sources in the energy balance of countries is determined by the competition of advantages and disadvantages. For developing countries, renewable energy sources have social significance
WHY IS ENERGY PRODUCED BY RES INSTALLATIONS IN MOST CASES EXPENSIVE? The main fundamental physical reason is the low density of energy flows and their irregularity (daily, seasonal, weather, etc.) FLOW DENSITIES OF SOME RES Solar radiation: clear noon - 1000 W/m2 on average per year - 150–250 W/m2 Wind flow: at v=10 m/s – 500 W/m 2 at v= 5 m/s – 60 W/m 2 Water flow: N ~ v 3 at v= 1 m/s – 500 W/m 2 V traditional power plants, the density of energy flows reaches hundreds of kilowatts or even several MW/m2 Result: the need for large surfaces for energy collection and the need to use large energy storage batteries, which causes an increase in cost
Environmental impact of solar energy facilities solar power plants (SPP) Advantages Disadvantages Obtaining electrical energy at the output of thermal collectors, convenient for transportation Solar concentrators cause large-area shading of land, which leads to strong changes in soil conditions, vegetation, etc. Possibility of obtaining high temperatures not only for the needs of energy supply, but also for the production of especially pure alloys. The air is heated when solar radiation, concentrated by mirror reflectors, passes through it; this leads to changes in the heat balance, humidity, wind direction, in some cases overheating and fire of systems using concentrators are possible. Using solar radiation as an environmentally friendly and inexhaustible source. The use of low-boiling liquids with their inevitable leakage can lead to significant contamination of surface and ground waters. Liquids containing chromates and nitrates, which are highly toxic, are especially dangerous. There are no gas emissions during the operation of solar power plants, saving on traditional fuels. The low conversion factor of solar energy into electrical energy raises serious problems associated with condensate cooling; At the same time, the thermal discharge into the biosphere is more than twice the discharge from traditional stations operating on fossil fuels.
Photovoltaic installations are semiconductor elements (photocells) connected in parallel or in series, in which a photoelectric effect occurs under the influence of solar radiation. 3) Photovoltaic solar energy conversion
Environmental impact of solar energy facilities - (photovoltaic converters (PV)) Advantages Disadvantages ease of manufacture and maintenance; relatively high cost of modular installations; durability; environmental cleanliness during operation. low modules. Industrial efficiency - possibility of application in urban emissions during production conditions (does not require large silicon dust, cadmium and areas and is silent); arsenide compounds hazardous to human health;
Environmental impact of wind farms 1. 2. 3. 4. Large-scale construction of wind farms in Europe at the turn of the third millennium attracted the attention of many environmental services and the public in order to identify those negative factors that are associated with the operation of large wind turbines. The main forms of impact of wind energy on the environment are as follows: impact on animals and vegetable world; interference with television and radio communications; changes in the natural landscape; alienation of lands. Currently, environmental studies of wind farms continue in terms of a more in-depth study of the impact on the environment, especially in connection with plans for the development of coastal waters. However, it can be considered proven that the environmental problems of wind energy in their complex cannot serve as an obstacle to the development of this industry, which is already making a significant contribution in individual countries to the replacement of fossil fuels. And taking into account the fact that the total annual wind energy potential of the Earth is estimated at a huge figure - 17.1 thousand TW. h and significantly exceeds the energy needs of humanity, we can talk about unlimited possibilities for using wind energy in the foreseeable future.
Environmental aspects of wind energy Life cycle of a wind power plant 1) Production of power equipment 2) Construction of a power plant 3) Operation 4) Disposal Link: Ermolenko B.V., Ermolenko G.V., Ryzhenkov M.A. Environmental aspects of wind energy // Thermal Energy, No. 11, 2011 Negative external effect (eurocent/kWh) Energy source WPP Effect 0.15 Natural gas 1.1 Coal power plant 2.55
III. USING THE HEAT OF THE EARTH (GEOTHERMAL ENERGY) Fig. 1. Heat flows of the Earth (a) and the location of the world's high-potential geothermal resources (b).
In Russia, for the first time in 1967, the invention was patented and implemented at the pilot-industrial Paratunka Geo. ES (Kamchatka) with a binary cycle technology for producing electrical energy based on the use of geothermal hot water. To date, more than 500 similar binary cycle geothermal energy plants are operating throughout the world. Double-circuit Geo. ES with a binary cycle make it possible to implement the technology of generating electricity from hot geothermal water. Geothermal coolant in such Geo. ES is used to heat and evaporate in the heat exchanger a low-boiling working medium (for example, isopentane) of the secondary circuit (see Fig. 2, b), which in a vapor state performs work in a binary turbine. Then it condenses in the capacitor and the entire operating cycle is repeated again. To ensure steam condensation in the condenser, various cooling systems are used, including air cooling towers (see Fig. 2, a, b). Rice. 2 Schematic diagrams of technologies for generating electricity using traditional Geo. ES (a) and Geo. ES with a binary cycle (b).
Micro- and Mini. Hydro Power Installations N = from 10 kW to several MW HYDRAULIC COMPONENTS Dam Upstream Spillway Power line pipeline Generator Turbine Suction pipe Downstream
Classification of SHPPs By power: in Russia - from 0.1 to 30 MW in Europe (ESHA) - up to 10 MW UN: - micro. Hydroelectric power station - up to 0.1 MW - mini-hydroelectric power station - from 0.1 to 1 MW - small hydroelectric power station - from 1 to 10 MW By type of watercourse: small rivers; streams; lake spillways; irrigation water pipelines; drinking water pipelines; According to the method of creating pressure: technological watercourses and dams; derivation product pipelines; enterprises; mixed (dam spillways of thermal power plants and nuclear power plants; dervation); small hydroelectric power plants with ready-made pressurized industrial and sewage wastewater. front (at canal differences, in water supply systems, etc.).
Characteristics of SHPPs Environmental aspects: Minimal flooding of lands or their absence (run-of-river SHPPs) Flooding and reworking of banks is present on a smaller scale Improvement of the hydrological conditions of the river Minimal climatic impact Minimal landscape transformation Do not interfere with water exchange processes, promote water aeration Cannot provoke earthquakes Increases the food supply of reservoirs, favorable affect the ichthyofauna Make a minimal contribution to gas emissions compared to all methods of energy production (over the full production cycle)
Behind last years JSC "MNTO INSET" developed "Concepts for the development and layout of small hydropower facilities" for the Republics of Tyva (18 small hydroelectric power stations) Altai (35 small hydroelectric power stations) Buryatia (12 small hydroelectric power stations) North Ossetia - Alania (17 small hydroelectric power stations) with a total capacity of more than 370 MW
According to sources, biomass is divided into: – wood waste (forestry waste and construction companies); – logging waste – short-cycle forests – grass lignocellulosic crops (miscanthus) – sugar crops (sugar beets, sugar cane, sorghum) – starch crops (corn, wheat, grain, barley) – oil crops (rapeseed, sunflowers) – agricultural by-products and waste (straw, manure, compost, etc.) – organic fractions of municipal solid waste and sewage sludge – industrial waste (for example, from the food and pulp and paper industries) V. Areas of bioenergy
The main liquid biofuels produced using modern technologies include: - biodiesel fuel (biodiesel) (production method: transesterification of triacylglycerides (TAG) of vegetable oils and animal fats; glycerin is obtained as a by-product); - renewable diesel (production methods: 1) TAG hydroprocessing; 2) gasification of biomass or its pyrolysis products followed by catalytic conversion of synthesis gas, including Fischer-Tropsch technologies (the English abbreviation of the process is BTL (biomass to liquid)); - first generation bioethanol from food raw materials (production method: alcoholic fermentation of carbohydrate-containing raw materials by yeast); - first generation biobutanol from food raw materials (production method: acetone-butyl fermentation of dissolved sugars by anaerobic clostridia. In this process, butanol, acetone and ethanol are formed in a ratio of 60: 30: 10, respectively; the by-product is hydrogen); - second generation bioethanol from cellulosic raw materials (production methods: 1) weak acid or enzymatic hydrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass, delignification, fermentation and drying of the resulting ethanol; 2) gasification of biomass with subsequent processing of synthesis gas into ethanol; 3) catalytic synthesis of ethanol); - second generation biobutanol from cellulose raw materials (production methods: production is based on acetone-butyl fermentation of dissolved sugars obtained from cellulose by anaerobic clostridia; - liquid pyrolysis biofuel (bio-oil) (production method: fast pyrolysis). Bio-oil is widely used as an alternative fuel for small and municipal energy, as well as chemical raw materials and raw materials for road construction *Hydroprocessing includes hydrocracking, hydrogenation and hydrotreating.
Third generation fuel from microalgae biosynthesis products Method of production: 1) biosynthesis of ethanol and hydrogen by algae; 2) biosynthesis of a) carbohydrates (followed by alcoholic or acetone-butyl fermentation to bioethanol and biobutanol), b) hydrocarbons (followed by hydrocracking to kerosene, gasoline, diesel, fuel oil, etc.), c) TAGs (with the production of transesterification of biodiesel and hydroprocessing - aviation fuel), etc. At the same time, the biomass of microalgae itself or the waste from its processing can serve as raw material for the production of biofuels (methane, bio-oil, liquid biofuels) using second-generation technologies (Fig. 1).
Exhaustible, renewable and non-renewable energy resources. Resource (ressource “auxiliary means”) - something that can be used, spent, a supply or source of something, a means, an opportunity for doing something Natural resources - a set of objects and systems of living and inanimate nature, components of the natural environment surrounding humans and which are used in the process of social production to satisfy the material and cultural needs of man and society. Fuel and energy resources are divided into exhaustible, renewable and secondary. Exhaustible fuel and energy resources are reserves of natural resources used as raw materials for energy production (coal, oil, fissile materials, etc.)
Exhaustible, renewable and non-renewable energy resources. Renewable or renewable energy sources are sources whose energy flows constantly exist or periodically arise in environment and are not the result of purposeful human activity. Renewable energy resources include energy from: - the Sun; - the world ocean in the form of ebb and flow energy, wave energy; - rivers; - wind; - sea currents; - produced from biomass, seaweed; - gutters; - solid household waste; - geothermal sources.
Energy resources of the world Uranium – 761.400 tons Nuclear fusion using deuterium resource unlimited
Types of fuel (solid, liquid, gaseous, nuclear), their composition, calorific value. Fuel is a substance that, under certain conditions, releases thermal energy, which is used in various sectors of the national economy to produce water vapor or hot water for heating, ventilation, hot water supply and electricity production systems. Fuel according to its state of aggregation is divided into solid, liquid, gaseous, according to the method of production - into natural: coal, peat, shale, natural gas and artificial (synthetic and composite): fuel briquettes, diesel and solar fuel, heating and household fuel oil, fuel emulsions and suspensions.
Types of fuel (solid, liquid, gaseous, nuclear), their composition, calorific value. The composition of solid and liquid fuels includes combustible elements: 1) carbon C, hydrogen H, sulfur S, 2) non-combustible elements (internal and external ballast) oxygen O, nitrogen N, moisture W and ash A. The fuel that is used for combustion is called a worker. Nuclear fuel is a substance in which nuclear reactions occur, releasing useful energy. A distinction is made between fissile substances and thermonuclear fuel. The amount of heat released during the complete combustion of a unit of fuel is called its calorific value, or calorific value, and is measured in k. J/kg or k. J/m3.
Fuel characteristics: higher and lower heating values. The higher calorific value of fuel combustion Qb is the amount of heat in kilojoules released by 1 kg (or 1 m3) of working fuel, provided that all water vapor formed from the oxidation of hydrogen and evaporation of fuel moisture condenses. In real conditions, all water vapor escapes into the atmosphere without condensing, and therefore the lower calorific value of fuel is used for calculations. The lowest calorific value of fuel combustion Qn is the amount of heat in kilojoules released by 1 kg (or 1 m 3) of working fuel, without taking into account the condensation of water vapor. The heat Qn is less than Qv by the heat of vaporization of water vapor (2460 kJ/kg).
Fuel characteristics: ash content, combustion products. The concept of standard fuel. Ash content is the ratio of the mass of non-combustible residue (ash) obtained after burning the combustible part of the fuel to the mass of the original fuel, expressed as a percentage; for coal (including anthracite) it ranges from 1 to 45 -50%, for shale - 45 - 80%, fuel peat - 2 -30%, fuel oil - 0.2 -1%, wood fuel - approx. 1%. During combustion, combustion products containing CO 2, H 2 O, CH 4 and, in addition, sometimes higher hydrocarbons are released, and when air is used, also N 2. H 2 S and NO 2 are also formed
Fuel characteristics: ash content, combustion products. The concept of standard fuel. Inventory accounting different types fuels are calculated in terms of standard fuel, the calorific value of which is taken to be 29,308 kJ/kg (7000 kcal/kg). The ratio E = Qn / 7000 is called the calorie coefficient, and it is taken for: - oil - 1.43; - natural gas - 1, 15; - peat - 0.34 -0.41; - peat briquettes 0.45 -0.6; - diesel fuel - 1.45; - fuel oil - 1, 37.
Classification of natural resources: By origin: - mineral (mineral resources); - climatic; - water; - land (soil); - biological; -resources of the World Ocean. -According to exhaustibility: -exhaustible: non-renewable (mineral, metal ores, salts, sulfur); renewable (land, water, air, soil, hydropower); - inexhaustible (energy from the sun, geothermal, wind, sea tides, tides and currents). By application: - natural resources for industry: fuel and energy; metallurgical; chemical and other raw materials; - for agriculture: land; soil; agroclimatic; - for recreation and tourism: recreational resources.
Structure of world energy consumption Energy sources 1971 1991 2000 2005 2010 Oil 47, 9 39, 2 38, 6 38, 3 37, 2 Coal 30, 9 29 28, 7 28, 8 29, 1 Natural gas NPP 18 , 4 22 22, 1 22, 4 23, 5 0, 6 7 6, 9 6, 7 6, 1 2, 2 2, 8 3, 7 3, 8 4, 1 HPP, etc.
Distribution of coal resource reserves World, regions Whole world CIS Foreign Europe Foreign Asia Africa North America Latin America Australia and Oceania Resources, billion tons 1400 280 255 160 75 520 20 90
Top ten countries by proven coal reserves Country USA China Russia Germany Great Britain Australia South Africa Ukraine Poland India Resources, billion tons 445 270 200 90 90 85 70 47 25 25
Top ten countries by proven oil reserves Country Saudi Arabia Iraq UAE Kuwait Iran Venezuela Mexico Russia China USA Resources, billion tons 43, 1 16, 7 16, 2 15, 7 14, 9 10, 7 8, 5 6, 7 4, 0 3, 8
Top ten countries by proven gas reserves Country Russia Iran Qatar UAE Saudi Arabia USA Nigeria Algeria Venezuela Iraq Resources, trillion. m³ 48, 0 20, 1 7, 0 5, 3 5, 1 4, 5 4, 0 3, 6 3, 1
World ore production Type of raw materials Iron ores Manganese ores Chrome ores Bauxite Copper ores Zinc ores Lead ores Tin ores Nickel ores Mining Main countries of production 970 China, Brazil, Australia, Russia, Ukraine, USA, Canada, South Africa. 22 Ukraine, China, South Africa, Australia, Brazil, India. 10 Kazakhstan, South Africa, India. 115 Australia, Guinea, Jamaica, Brazil, India. 10 Chile, USA, Canada, Zambia, DR Congo, Peru. 7 Canada, Australia, China, Peru, USA, Mexico. 3 Australia, USA, China, Canada, Peru, Mexico. 0, 2 China, Brazil, Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Bolivia. 0.9 Russia, Canada, New Caledonia.
World production of non-metallic raw materials Type of raw materials Production Phosphorites, apatites Potassium salts Sulfur Diamonds (thousand carats) 130 60 55 110 Main production countries USA, China, Morocco, Jordan, Tunisia, Russia. Canada, Germany, USA, France, Israel, Russia. USA, Canada, Poland, China. Australia, Botswana, DR Congo, Russia.
Resource availability is the relationship between the amount of natural resources and the extent of their use. It is expressed by the number of years for which a given resource should last, or by its reserves per capita. Resource availability = reserves / production (number of years) Annual growth in mineral production is 2% per year
Top ten countries in the world in terms of arable land size Country USA India Russia China Australia Canada Brazil Kazakhstan Ukraine Nigeria Arable land area, million hectares 185, 7 166, 1 130, 3 92, 5 47, 0 45, 4 43, 2 34, 8 33, 3 30, 2 
Distribution of forest area World, regions Whole world CIS Foreign Europe Foreign Asia Africa North America Latin America Australia and Oceania Resources, million hectares 4170 800 200 530 740 850 200
Top ten countries in the world in terms of forest area Country Russia Canada Brazil USA DR Congo Australia China Indonesia Peru Bolivia Forest area, million hectares 765, 9,494, 0,488, 0,296, 0,173, 8,145, 0,130, 5,111, 3 84.8 58.0
Distribution of freshwater resources World, regions Whole world Europe Asia Africa North America South America Australia and Oceania Resources, thousand km³ Per capita, thousand m³ 41, 0 6, 2 13, 2 4, 0 6, 4 9, 6 1, 6 7, 2 8, 6 3, 8 5, 5 15, 4 29, 8 56, 5
Top ten countries in the world in terms of fresh water reserves Country Resources, km³ Brazil Russia Canada China Indonesia USA Bangladesh India Venezuela Myanmar 6950 4500 2900 2800 2530 2480 2360 2085 1320 1080 Per capita, thousand m³ 43.0 30.5 98.5 2. 3 12, 2 9, 4 19, 6 2, 2 60, 3 23, 3
Ten largest reservoirs in the world Name Victoria Bratsk Kariba Nasser (Aswan) Volta (Akosombo) Daniel-Johnson Guri Wadi-Tartar Krasnoyarsk Gordon M. Schram Country Total volume, km³ Surface area, km² Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania Russia Zambia, Zimbabwe Egypt, Sudan Ghana Canada Venezuela Iraq Russia Canada 204, 8 76000 169, 3 160, 3 157, 0 148, 0 141, 8 135, 0 85, 5 73, 3 70, 1 5470 4450 5120 8480 1950 1500 3400 2000 1 680
