1243 - After the defeat of Northern Rus' by the Mongol-Tatars and the death of the Great Prince of Vladimir Yuri Vsevolodovich (1188-1238x), Yaroslav Vsevolodovich (1190-1246+) remained the eldest in the family, who became the Grand Duke.
Returning from the western campaign, Batu summons Grand Duke Yaroslav II Vsevolodovich of Vladimir-Suzdal to the Horde and presents him at the Khan's headquarters in Sarai with a label (sign of permission) for the great reign in Rus': “You will be older than all the princes in the Russian language.”
This is how the unilateral act of vassal submission of Rus' to the Golden Horde was carried out and legally formalized.
Rus', according to the label, lost the right to fight and had to regularly pay tribute to the khans twice annually (in spring and autumn). Baskaks (governors) were sent to the Russian principalities - their capitals - to oversee the strict collection of tribute and compliance with its amounts.
1243-1252 - This decade was a time when Horde troops and officials did not bother Rus', receiving timely tribute and expressions of external submission. During this period, the Russian princes assessed the current situation and developed their own line of behavior in relation to the Horde.
Two lines of Russian policy:
1. The line of systematic partisan resistance and continuous “spot” uprisings: (“to run away, not to serve the king”) - led. book Andrey I Yaroslavich, Yaroslav III Yaroslavich and others.
2. Line of complete, unquestioning submission to the Horde (Alexander Nevsky and most other princes). Many appanage princes (Uglitsky, Yaroslavl, and especially Rostov) established relations with the Mongol khans, who left them to “rule and rule.” The princes preferred to recognize the supreme power of the Horde khan and donate part of the feudal rent collected from the dependent population to the conquerors, rather than risk losing their reigns (See “On the arrivals of Russian princes to the Horde”). The Orthodox Church pursued the same policy.
1252 Invasion of the "Nevryueva Army" The first after 1239 in North-Eastern Rus' - Reasons for the invasion: To punish Grand Duke Andrei I Yaroslavich for disobedience and to speed up the full payment of tribute.
Horde forces: Nevryu’s army had a significant number - at least 10 thousand people. and a maximum of 20-25 thousand. This indirectly follows from the title of Nevryuya (prince) and the presence in his army of two wings led by temniks - Yelabuga (Olabuga) and Kotiy, as well as from the fact that Nevryuya’s army was able to disperse throughout the Vladimir-Suzdal principality and "comb" it!
Russian forces: Consisted of regiments of the prince. Andrei (i.e. regular troops) and the squad (volunteer and security detachments) of the Tver governor Zhiroslav, sent by the Tver prince Yaroslav Yaroslavich to help his brother. These forces were an order of magnitude smaller than the Horde in number, i.e. 1.5-2 thousand people.
Progress of the invasion: Having crossed the Klyazma River near Vladimir, Nevryu’s punitive army hastily headed to Pereyaslavl-Zalessky, where the prince took refuge. Andrei, and, having overtaken the prince’s army, defeated him completely. The Horde plundered and destroyed the city, and then occupied the entire Vladimir land and, returning to the Horde, “combed” it.
Results of the invasion: The Horde army rounded up and captured tens of thousands of captive peasants (for sale in eastern markets) and hundreds of thousands of heads of livestock and took them to the Horde. Book Andrei and the remnants of his squad fled to the Novgorod Republic, which refused to give him asylum, fearing Horde reprisals. Fearing that one of his “friends” would hand him over to the Horde, Andrei fled to Sweden. Thus, the first attempt to resist the Horde failed. The Russian princes abandoned the line of resistance and leaned towards the line of obedience.
Alexander Nevsky received the label for the great reign.
1255 The first complete census of the population of North-Eastern Rus', carried out by the Horde - was accompanied by spontaneous unrest of the local population, scattered, unorganized, but united by the common demand of the masses: “not to give numbers to the Tatars,” i.e. do not provide them with any data that could form the basis for a fixed payment of tribute.
Other authors indicate other dates for the census (1257-1259)
1257 Attempt to conduct a census in Novgorod - In 1255, a census was not carried out in Novgorod. In 1257, this measure was accompanied by an uprising of the Novgorodians, the expulsion of the Horde “counters” from the city, which led to the complete failure of the attempt to collect tribute.
1259 Embassy of the Murzas Berke and Kasachik to Novgorod - The punitive-control army of the Horde ambassadors - the Murzas Berke and Kasachik - was sent to Novgorod to collect tribute and prevent anti-Horde protests by the population. Novgorod, as always in case of military danger, yielded to force and traditionally paid off, and also gave an obligation to pay tribute annually, without reminders or pressure, “voluntarily” determining its size, without drawing up census documents, in exchange for a guarantee of absence from the city Horde collectors.
1262 Meeting of representatives of Russian cities with a discussion of measures to resist the Horde - A decision was made to simultaneously expel tribute collectors - representatives of the Horde administration in the cities of Rostov the Great, Vladimir, Suzdal, Pereyaslavl-Zalessky, Yaroslavl, where anti-Horde events take place popular performances. These riots were suppressed by Horde military detachments at the disposal of the Baskaks. But nevertheless, the khan’s government took into account 20 years of experience in repeating such spontaneous rebellious outbreaks and abandoned the Baskas, from now on transferring the collection of tribute into the hands of the Russian, princely administration.

Since 1263, the Russian princes themselves began to bring tribute to the Horde.
Thus, the formal moment, as in the case of Novgorod, turned out to be decisive. The Russians did not so much resist the fact of paying tribute and its size as they were offended by the foreign composition of the collectors. They were ready to pay more, but to “their” princes and their administration. The Khan's authorities quickly realized the benefits of such a decision for the Horde:
firstly, the absence of your own troubles,
secondly, a guarantee of an end to the uprisings and complete obedience of the Russians.
thirdly, the presence of specific responsible persons (princes), who could always easily, conveniently and even “legally” be brought to justice, punished for failure to pay tribute, and not have to deal with intractable spontaneous popular uprisings of thousands of people.
This is very early manifestation specifically Russian social and individual psychology, for which the visible is important, not the essential, and which is always ready to make actually important, serious, essential concessions in exchange for visible, superficial, external, “toy” and supposedly prestigious ones, will be repeated many times throughout Russian history up to the present time.
The Russian people are easy to persuade, to appease with petty handouts, trifles, but they cannot be irritated. Then he becomes stubborn, intractable and reckless, and sometimes even angry.
But you can literally take it with your bare hands, wrap it around your finger, if you immediately give in to some trifle. The Mongols, like the first Horde khans - Batu and Berke, understood this well.

I cannot agree with V. Pokhlebkin’s unfair and humiliating generalization. You should not consider your ancestors as stupid, gullible savages and judge them from the “height” of 700 past years. There were numerous anti-Horde protests - they were suppressed, presumably, cruelly, not only by the Horde troops, but also by their own princes. But the transfer of the collection of tribute (from which it was simply impossible to free oneself in those conditions) to the Russian princes was not a “petty concession”, but an important, fundamental point. Unlike a number of other countries conquered by the Horde, North-Eastern Rus' retained its political and social system. There was never a permanent Mongol administration on Russian soil; under the painful yoke, Rus' managed to maintain the conditions for its independent development, although not without the influence of the Horde. An example of the opposite kind is the Volga Bulgaria, which, under the Horde, was ultimately unable to preserve not only its own ruling dynasty and name, but also the ethnic continuity of the population.

Later, the khan’s power itself became smaller, lost state wisdom and gradually, through its mistakes, “raised” from Rus' its enemy as insidious and prudent as itself. But in the 60s of the 13th century. this finale was still far away - two whole centuries. In the meantime, the Horde manipulated the Russian princes and, through them, all of Russia, as it wanted. (He who laughs last laughs best - isn't it?)

1272 Second Horde census in Rus' - Under the leadership and supervision of the Russian princes, the Russian local administration, it took place peacefully, calmly, without a hitch. After all, it was carried out by “Russian people”, and the population was calm.
It’s a pity that the census results were not preserved, or maybe I just don’t know?

And the fact that it was carried out on the Khan’s orders, that the Russian princes delivered its data to the Horde and that this data directly served the Horde’s economic and political interests - all this was “behind the scenes” for the people, all this “did not concern” them and did not interest them . The appearance that the census was taking place “without Tatars” was more important than essence, i.e. the strengthening of the tax oppression that came on its basis, the impoverishment of the population, and its suffering. All this “was not visible”, and therefore, according to Russian ideas, this means that... it did not happen.
Moreover, in just three decades since the enslavement, Russian society had essentially become accustomed to the fact of the Horde yoke, and the fact that it was isolated from direct contact with representatives of the Horde and entrusted these contacts exclusively to the princes completely satisfied it, How ordinary people, and noble ones.
The proverb “out of sight, out of mind” explains this situation very accurately and correctly. As is clear from the chronicles of that time, the lives of saints and patristic and other religious literature, which was a reflection of the prevailing ideas, Russians of all classes and conditions had no desire to get to know their enslavers better, to get acquainted with “what they breathe,” what they think, how they think as they understand themselves and Rus'. They were seen as “God’s punishment” sent down to the Russian land for sins. If they had not sinned, if they had not angered God, there would not have been such disasters - this is the starting point of all explanations on the part of the authorities and the church of the then “international situation”. It is not difficult to see that this position is not only very, very passive, but that, in addition, it actually removes the blame for the enslavement of Rus' from both the Mongol-Tatars and the Russian princes who allowed such a yoke, and shifts it entirely onto the people who found themselves enslaved and suffered more than anyone else from this.
Based on the thesis of sinfulness, the churchmen called on the Russian people not to resist the invaders, but, on the contrary, to their own repentance and submission to the “Tatars”; they not only did not condemn the Horde power, but also... set it as an example to their flock. This was a direct payment from the outside Orthodox Church the enormous privileges granted to her by the khans - exemption from taxes and levies, ceremonial receptions of metropolitans in the Horde, the establishment in 1261 of a special Sarai diocese and permission to erect an Orthodox church directly opposite the khan's Headquarters *.

*) After the collapse of the Horde, at the end of the 15th century. the entire staff of the Sarai diocese was retained and transferred to Moscow, to the Krutitsky monastery, and the Sarai bishops received the title of metropolitans of Sarai and Podonsk, and then of Krutitsky and Kolomna, i.e. formally they were equal in rank with the metropolitans of Moscow and All Rus', although they were no longer engaged in any real church-political activities. This historical and decorative post was liquidated only at the end of the 18th century. (1788) [Note. V. Pokhlebkina]

It should be noted that on the threshold of the 21st century. we are going through a similar situation. Modern “princes,” like the princes of Vladimir-Suzdal Rus', are trying to exploit the ignorance and slave psychology of the people and even cultivate it, not without the help of the same church.

At the end of the 70s of the 13th century. The period of temporary calm from Horde unrest in Rus' ends, explained by ten years of emphasized submission of the Russian princes and the church. The internal needs of the Horde economy, which made constant profits from the trade in slaves (captured during the war) in the eastern (Iranian, Turkish and Arab) markets, require a new influx of funds, and therefore in 1277-1278. The Horde twice makes local raids into the Russian border borders solely to remove the Polonians.
It is significant that it is not the central Khan’s administration and its military forces that take part in this, but regional, ulus authorities in the peripheral areas of the Horde’s territory, solving their local, local economic problems with these raids, and therefore strictly limiting both place and time (very short, calculated in weeks) of these military actions.

1277 - A raid on the lands of the Galicia-Volyn principality is carried out by detachments from the western Dniester-Dnieper regions of the Horde, which were under the rule of the Temnik Nogai.
1278 - A similar local raid follows from the Volga region to Ryazan, and it is limited only to this principality.

During the next decade - in the 80s and early 90s of the 13th century. - new processes are taking place in Russian-Horde relations.
The Russian princes, having become accustomed to the new situation over the previous 25-30 years and deprived of essentially any control from domestic authorities, begin to settle their petty feudal scores with each other with the help of the Horde military force.
Just like in the 12th century. The Chernigov and Kyiv princes fought with each other, calling the Polovtsians to Rus', and the princes of North-Eastern Rus' fought in the 80s of the 13th century. with each other for power, relying on Horde troops, which they invite to plunder the principalities of their political opponents, i.e., in fact, they coldly call on foreign troops to devastate the areas inhabited by their Russian compatriots.

1281 - The son of Alexander Nevsky, Andrei II Alexandrovich, Prince Gorodetsky, invites the Horde army against his brother led. Dmitry I Alexandrovich and his allies. This army is organized by Khan Tuda-Mengu, who simultaneously gives Andrew II the label for the great reign, even before the outcome of the military clash.
Dmitry I, fleeing from the Khan's troops, fled first to Tver, then to Novgorod, and from there to his possession on Novgorod land - Koporye. But the Novgorodians, declaring themselves loyal to the Horde, do not allow Dmitry into his estate and, taking advantage of its location inside the Novgorod lands, force the prince to tear down all its fortifications and ultimately force Dmitry I to flee from Rus' to Sweden, threatening to hand him over to the Tatars.
The Horde army (Kavgadai and Alchegey), under the pretext of persecuting Dmitry I, relying on the permission of Andrew II, passes through and devastates several Russian principalities - Vladimir, Tver, Suzdal, Rostov, Murom, Pereyaslavl-Zalessky and their capitals. The Horde reached Torzhok, practically occupying all of North-Eastern Rus' to the borders of the Novgorod Republic.
The length of the entire territory from Murom to Torzhok (from east to west) was 450 km, and from south to north - 250-280 km, i.e. almost 120 thousand square kilometers that were devastated by military operations. This turns the Russian population of the devastated principalities against Andrew II, and his formal “reign” after the flight of Dmitry I does not bring peace.
Dmitry I returns to Pereyaslavl and prepares for revenge, Andrei II goes to the Horde with a request for help, and his allies - Svyatoslav Yaroslavich Tverskoy, Daniil Alexandrovich Moskovsky and the Novgorodians - go to Dmitry I and make peace with him.
1282 - Andrew II comes from the Horde with Tatar regiments led by Turai-Temir and Ali, reaches Pereyaslavl and again expels Dmitry, who flees this time to the Black Sea, into the possession of Temnik Nogai (who at that time was the de facto ruler of the Golden Horde) , and, playing on the contradictions between Nogai and the Sarai khans, brings the troops given by Nogai to Rus' and forces Andrei II to return the great reign to him.
The price of this “restoration of justice” is very high: Nogai officials are left to collect tribute in Kursk, Lipetsk, Rylsk; Rostov and Murom are again being ruined. The conflict between the two princes (and the allies who joined them) continues throughout the 80s and early 90s.
1285 - Andrew II again travels to the Horde and brings from there a new punitive detachment of the Horde, led by one of the khan’s sons. However, Dmitry I manages to successfully and quickly defeat this detachment.

Thus, the first victory of Russian troops over the regular Horde troops was won in 1285, and not in 1378, on the Vozha River, as is usually believed.
It is not surprising that Andrew II stopped turning to the Horde for help in subsequent years.
The Horde themselves sent small predatory expeditions to Rus' in the late 80s:

1287 - Raid on Vladimir.
1288 - Raid on Ryazan and Murom and Mordovian lands. These two raids (short-term) were of a specific, local nature and were aimed at plundering property and capturing polyanyans. They were provoked by a denunciation or complaint from the Russian princes.
1292 - “Dedeneva’s army” to the Vladimir land Andrei Gorodetsky, together with princes Dmitry Borisovich Rostovsky, Konstantin Borisovich Uglitsky, Mikhail Glebovich Belozersky, Fyodor Yaroslavsky and Bishop Tarasius, went to the Horde to complain about Dmitry I Alexandrovich.
Khan Tokhta, having listened to the complainants, dispatched a significant army under the leadership of his brother Tudan (in Russian chronicles - Deden) to conduct a punitive expedition.
"Dedeneva's army" marched throughout Vladimir Rus', ravaging the capital of Vladimir and 14 other cities: Murom, Suzdal, Gorokhovets, Starodub, Bogolyubov, Yuryev-Polsky, Gorodets, Uglechepol (Uglich), Yaroslavl, Nerekhta, Ksnyatin, Pereyaslavl-Zalessky , Rostov, Dmitrov.
In addition to them, only 7 cities that lay outside the route of movement of Tudan’s detachments remained untouched by the invasion: Kostroma, Tver, Zubtsov, Moscow, Galich Mersky, Unzha, Nizhny Novgorod.
On the approach to Moscow (or near Moscow), Tudan’s army divided into two detachments, one of which headed towards Kolomna, i.e. to the south, and the other to the west: to Zvenigorod, Mozhaisk, Volokolamsk.
In Volokolamsk, the Horde army received gifts from the Novgorodians, who hastened to bring and present gifts to the khan’s brother far from their lands. Tudan did not go to Tver, but returned to Pereyaslavl-Zalessky, which was made a base where all the looted booty was brought and prisoners were concentrated.
This campaign was a significant pogrom of Rus'. It is possible that Tudan and his army also passed through Klin, Serpukhov, and Zvenigorod, which were not named in the chronicles. Thus, its area of ​​​​operation covered about two dozen cities.
1293 - In winter, a new Horde detachment appeared near Tver under the leadership of Toktemir, who came with punitive purposes at the request of one of the princes to restore order in feudal strife. He had limited goals, and the chronicles do not describe his route and time of stay on Russian territory.
In any case, the entire year of 1293 passed under the sign of another Horde pogrom, the cause of which was exclusively the feudal rivalry of the princes. They were the main reason for the Horde repressions that fell on the Russian people.

1294-1315 Two decades pass without any Horde invasions.
The princes regularly pay tribute, the people, frightened and impoverished from previous robberies, are slowly healing from economic and human losses. Only the accession to the throne of the extremely powerful and active Khan of Uzbek opens a new period of pressure on Rus'
The main idea of ​​Uzbek is to achieve complete disunity of the Russian princes and turn them into continuously warring factions. Hence his plan - the transfer of the great reign to the weakest and most unwarlike prince - Moscow (under Khan Uzbek, the Moscow prince was Yuri Danilovich, who challenged the great reign from Mikhail Yaroslavich Tver) and the weakening of the former rulers of the "strong principalities" - Rostov, Vladimir, Tver.
To ensure the collection of tribute, Uzbek Khan practices sending, together with the prince, who received instructions in the Horde, special envoys-ambassadors, accompanied by military detachments numbering several thousand people (sometimes there were up to 5 temniks!). Each prince collects tribute on the territory of a rival principality.
From 1315 to 1327, i.e. over 12 years, Uzbek sent 9 military “embassies”. Their functions were not diplomatic, but military-punitive (police) and partly military-political (pressure on princes).

1315 - “Ambassadors” of Uzbek accompany Grand Duke Mikhail of Tver (see Table of Ambassadors), and their detachments plunder Rostov and Torzhok, near which they defeat the detachments of Novgorodians.
1317 - Horde punitive detachments accompany Yuri of Moscow and plunder Kostroma, and then try to rob Tver, but suffer a severe defeat.
1319 - Kostroma and Rostov are robbed again.
1320 - Rostov becomes a victim of robbery for the third time, but Vladimir is mostly destroyed.
1321 - Tribute is extorted from Kashin and the Kashin principality.
1322 - Yaroslavl and the cities of the Nizhny Novgorod principality are subjected to a punitive action to collect tribute.
1327 “Shchelkanov’s Army” - Novgorodians, frightened by the Horde’s activity, “voluntarily” pay a tribute of 2,000 rubles in silver to the Horde.
The famous attack of Chelkan’s (Cholpan’s) detachment on Tver takes place, known in the chronicles as the “Shchelkanov invasion”, or “Shchelkanov’s army”. It causes an unprecedentedly decisive uprising of the townspeople and the destruction of the “ambassador” and his detachment. “Schelkan” himself is burned in the hut.
1328 - A special punitive expedition follows against Tver under the leadership of three ambassadors - Turalyk, Syuga and Fedorok - and with 5 temniks, i.e. an entire army, which the chronicle defines as a “great army.” Along with the 50,000-strong Horde army, Moscow princely detachments also took part in the destruction of Tver.

From 1328 to 1367, “great silence” sets in for 40 years.
It is a direct result of three circumstances:
1. Complete defeat of the Tver principality as a rival of Moscow and thereby eliminating the causes of military-political rivalry in Rus'.
2. Timely collection of tribute by Ivan Kalita, who in the eyes of the khans becomes an exemplary executor of the Horde’s fiscal orders and, in addition, expresses exceptional political obedience to it, and, finally
3. The result of the understanding by the Horde rulers that the Russian population had matured in its determination to fight the enslavers and therefore it was necessary to apply other forms of pressure and consolidation of the dependence of Rus', other than punitive ones.
As for the use of some princes against others, this measure no longer seems universal in the face of possible popular uprisings uncontrolled by the “tame princes.” A turning point is coming in Russian-Horde relations.
Punitive campaigns (invasions) into the central regions of North-Eastern Rus' with the inevitable ruin of its population have since ceased.
At the same time, short-term raids with predatory (but not ruinous) purposes on peripheral areas of Russian territory, raids on local, limited areas continue to take place and are preserved as the most favorite and safest for the Horde, unilateral, short-term military-economic action.

A new phenomenon in the period from 1360 to 1375 were retaliatory raids, or more precisely, campaigns of Russian armed detachments in peripheral lands dependent on the Horde, bordering with Russia - mainly in the Bulgars.

1347 - A raid is made on the city of Aleksin, a border town on the Moscow-Horde border along the Oka
1360 - The Novgorod ushkuiniki make their first raid on the city of Zhukotin.
1365 - The Horde prince Tagai raids the Ryazan principality.
1367 - The troops of Prince Temir-Bulat invade the Nizhny Novgorod principality with a raid, especially intensively in the border strip along the Piana River.
1370 - A new Horde raid follows on the Ryazan principality in the area of ​​the Moscow-Ryazan border. But the Horde soldiers stationed there were not allowed to cross the Oka River by Prince Dmitry IV Ivanovich. And the Horde, in turn, noticing the resistance, did not strive to overcome it and limited themselves to reconnaissance.
The raid-invasion is carried out by Prince Dmitry Konstantinovich of Nizhny Novgorod on the lands of the “parallel” khan of Bulgaria - Bulat-Temir;
1374 Anti-Horde uprising in Novgorod - The reason was the arrival of Horde ambassadors, accompanied by a large armed retinue of 1000 people. This is common at the beginning of the 14th century. the escort was, however, regarded in the last quarter of the same century as a dangerous threat and provoked an armed attack by the Novgorodians on the “embassy”, during which both the “ambassadors” and their guards were completely destroyed.
A new raid by the Ushkuiniks, who rob not only the city of Bulgar, but are not afraid to penetrate to Astrakhan.
1375 - Horde raid on the city of Kashin, brief and local.
1376 2nd campaign against the Bulgars - The combined Moscow-Nizhny Novgorod army prepared and carried out the 2nd campaign against the Bulgars, and took an indemnity of 5,000 silver rubles from the city. This attack, unheard of in 130 years of Russian-Horde relations, by Russians on territory dependent on the Horde, naturally provokes a retaliatory military action.
1377 Massacre on the Pyana River - On the border Russian-Horde territory, on the Pyana River, where the Nizhny Novgorod princes were preparing a new raid on the Mordovian lands that lay beyond the river, dependent on the Horde, they were attacked by a detachment of Prince Arapsha (Arab Shah, Khan of the Blue Horde ) and suffered a crushing defeat.
On August 2, 1377, the united militia of the princes of Suzdal, Pereyaslavl, Yaroslavl, Yuryevsky, Murom and Nizhny Novgorod was completely killed, and the “commander-in-chief” Prince Ivan Dmitrievich of Nizhny Novgorod drowned in the river, trying to escape, along with his personal squad and his “headquarters” . This defeat of the Russian army was largely due to their loss of vigilance due to many days of drunkenness.
Having destroyed the Russian army, the troops of Tsarevich Arapsha raided the capitals of the unlucky warrior princes - Nizhny Novgorod, Murom and Ryazan - and subjected them to complete plunder and burning to the ground.
1378 Battle of the Vozha River - In the 13th century. after such a defeat, the Russians usually lost any desire to resist the Horde troops for 10-20 years, but at the end of the 14th century. The situation has completely changed:
already in 1378 an ally of the Moscow princes defeated in the battle on the Piana River Grand Duke Dmitry IV Ivanovich, having learned that the Horde troops who burned Nizhny Novgorod intended to go to Moscow under the command of Murza Begich, decided to meet them on the border of his principality on the Oka and not allow them to the capital.
On August 11, 1378, a battle took place on the bank of the right tributary of the Oka, the Vozha River, in the Ryazan principality. Dmitry divided his army into three parts and, at the head of the main regiment, attacked the Horde army from the front, while Prince Daniil Pronsky and Okolnichy Timofey Vasilyevich attacked the Tatars from the flanks, in the girth. The Horde were completely defeated and fled across the Vozha River, losing many killed and carts, which Russian troops captured the next day, rushing to pursue the Tatars.
The Battle of the Vozha River had enormous moral and military significance as a dress rehearsal for the Battle of Kulikovo, which followed two years later.
1380 Battle of Kulikovo - The Battle of Kulikovo was the first serious, specially prepared battle in advance, and not random and improvised, like all previous military clashes between Russian and Horde troops.
1382 Tokhtamysh's invasion of Moscow - The defeat of Mamai's army on the Kulikovo field and his flight to Kafa and death in 1381 allowed the energetic Khan Tokhtamysh to end the power of the Temniks in the Horde and reunite it into a single state, eliminating the "parallel khans" in the regions.
Tokhtamysh identified as his main military-political task the restoration of the military and foreign policy prestige of the Horde and the preparation of a revanchist campaign against Moscow.

Results of Tokhtamysh’s campaign:
Returning to Moscow in early September 1382, Dmitry Donskoy saw the ashes and ordered the immediate restoration of devastated Moscow, at least with temporary wooden buildings, before the onset of frost.
Thus, the military, political and economic achievements of the Battle of Kulikovo were completely eliminated by the Horde two years later:
1. The tribute was not only restored, but actually doubled, because the population decreased, but the size of the tribute remained the same. In addition, the people had to pay the Grand Duke a special emergency tax to replenish the princely treasury taken away by the Horde.
2. Politically, vassalage increased sharply, even formally. In 1384, Dmitry Donskoy was forced for the first time to send his son, the heir to the throne, the future Grand Duke Vasily II Dmitrievich, who was 12 years old, to the Horde as a hostage (According to the generally accepted account, this is Vasily I. V.V. Pokhlebkin, apparently, believes 1 -m Vasily Yaroslavich Kostromsky). Relations with neighbors worsened - the Tver, Suzdal, Ryazan principalities, which were specially supported by the Horde to create a political and military counterbalance to Moscow.

The situation was really difficult; in 1383, Dmitry Donskoy had to “compete” in the Horde for the great reign, to which Mikhail Alexandrovich Tverskoy again made his claims. The reign was left to Dmitry, but his son Vasily was taken hostage into the Horde. The “fierce” ambassador Adash appeared in Vladimir (1383, see “Golden Horde Ambassadors in Rus'”). In 1384, it was necessary to collect a heavy tribute (half a ruble per village) from the entire Russian land, and from Novgorod - Black Forest. The Novgorodians began looting along the Volga and Kama and refused to pay tribute. In 1385, they had to show unprecedented leniency towards the Ryazan prince, who decided to attack Kolomna (annexed to Moscow back in 1300) and defeated the troops of the Moscow prince.

Thus, Rus' was actually thrown back to the situation in 1313, under the Uzbek Khan, i.e. practically, the achievements of the Battle of Kulikovo were completely erased. Both in military-political and economic terms, the Moscow principality was thrown back 75-100 years. The prospects for relations with the Horde, therefore, were extremely gloomy for Moscow and Rus' as a whole. One could have assumed that the Horde yoke would be secured forever (well, nothing lasts forever!), if a new historical accident had not occurred:
The period of wars between the Horde and the empire of Tamerlane and the complete defeat of the Horde during these two wars, the violation of all economic, administrative, political life in the Horde, the death of the Horde army, the ruin of both of its capitals - Sarai I and Sarai II, the beginning of a new unrest, the struggle for power of several khans in the period from 1391-1396. - all this led to an unprecedented weakening of the Horde in all areas and made it necessary for the Horde khans to focus on the turn of the 14th century. and XV century exclusively on internal problems, temporarily neglect external ones and, in particular, weaken control over Russia.
It was this unexpected situation that helped the Moscow principality gain significant respite and restore its strength - economic, military and political.

Here, perhaps, we should pause and make a few notes. I do not believe in historical accidents of this magnitude, and there is no need to explain the further relations of Muscovite Rus' with the Horde as an unexpected happy accident. Without going into details, we note that by the early 90s of the 14th century. Moscow somehow solved the economic and political problems that arose. The Moscow-Lithuanian Treaty concluded in 1384 removed the Principality of Tver from the influence of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Mikhail Alexandrovich Tverskoy, having lost support both in the Horde and in Lithuania, recognized the primacy of Moscow. In 1385, the son of Dmitry Donskoy, Vasily Dmitrievich, was released from the Horde. In 1386, a reconciliation between Dmitry Donskoy and Oleg Ivanovich Ryazansky took place, which in 1387 was sealed by the marriage of their children (Fyodor Olegovich and Sofia Dmitrievna). In the same 1386, Dmitry managed to restore his influence there with a large military demonstration under the Novgorod walls, take the black forest in the volosts and 8,000 rubles in Novgorod. In 1388, Dmitry also faced the discontent of his cousin and comrade-in-arms Vladimir Andreevich, who had to be brought “to his will” by force and forced to recognize the political seniority of his eldest son Vasily. Dmitry managed to make peace with Vladimir two months before his death (1389). In his spiritual will, Dmitry blessed (for the first time) his eldest son Vasily “with his fatherland with his great reign.” And finally, in the summer of 1390, the marriage of Vasily and Sophia, the daughter of the Lithuanian prince Vitovt, took place in a solemn atmosphere. IN Eastern Europe Vasily I Dmitrievich and Cyprian, who became metropolitan on October 1, 1389, are trying to prevent the strengthening of the Lithuanian-Polish dynastic union and replace the Polish-Catholic colonization of Lithuanian and Russian lands with the consolidation of Russian forces around Moscow. An alliance with Vytautas, who was against the Catholicization of the Russian lands that were part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, was important for Moscow, but could not be durable, since Vytautas, naturally, had his own goals and his own vision of what center the Russians should gather around lands.
New stage in the history of the Golden Horde coincided with the death of Dmitry. It was then that Tokhtamysh came out of the reconciliation with Tamerlane and began to lay claim to the territories under his control. A confrontation began. Under these conditions, Tokhtamysh, immediately after the death of Dmitry Donskoy, issued a label for the reign of Vladimir to his son, Vasily I, and strengthened it, transferring to him the Nizhny Novgorod principality and a number of cities. In 1395, Tamerlane's troops defeated Tokhtamysh on the Terek River.

At the same time, Tamerlane, having destroyed the power of the Horde, did not carry out his campaign against Rus'. Having reached Yelets without fighting or looting, he unexpectedly turned back and returned to Central Asia. Thus, Tamerlane’s actions at the end of the 14th century. became a historical factor that helped Rus' survive in the fight against the Horde.

1405 - In 1405, based on the situation in the Horde, the Grand Duke of Moscow officially announced for the first time that he refused to pay tribute to the Horde. During 1405-1407 The Horde did not react in any way to this demarche, but then Edigei’s campaign against Moscow followed.
Only 13 years after Tokhtamysh’s campaign (Apparently, there is a typo in the book - 13 years have passed since Tamerlane’s campaign) could the Horde authorities again remember the vassal dependence of Moscow and gather forces for a new campaign in order to restore the flow of tribute, which had ceased since 1395.
1408 Edigei's campaign against Moscow - December 1, 1408, a huge army of Edigei's temnik approached Moscow along the winter sled road and besieged the Kremlin.
On the Russian side, the situation during Tokhtamysh’s campaign in 1382 was repeated in detail.
1. Grand Duke Vasily II Dmitrievich, hearing about the danger, like his father, fled to Kostroma (supposedly to gather an army).
2. In Moscow, Vladimir Andreevich Brave, Prince Serpukhovsky, a participant in the Battle of Kulikovo, remained in charge of the garrison.
3. The Moscow suburb was burned out again, i.e. all wooden Moscow around the Kremlin, for a mile in all directions.
4. Edigei, approaching Moscow, set up his camp in Kolomenskoye, and sent a notice to the Kremlin that he would stand all winter and starve out the Kremlin without losing a single fighter.
5. The memory of Tokhtamysh’s invasion was still so fresh among Muscovites that it was decided to fulfill any demands of Edigei, so that only he would leave without hostilities.
6. Edigei demanded to collect 3,000 rubles in two weeks. silver, which was done. In addition, Edigei's troops, scattered throughout the principality and its cities, began to gather Polonyanniks for capture (several tens of thousands of people). Some cities were severely devastated, for example Mozhaisk was completely burned.
7. On December 20, 1408, having received everything that was required, Edigei’s army left Moscow without being attacked or pursued by Russian forces.
8. The damage caused by Edigei’s campaign was less than the damage caused by Tokhtamysh’s invasion, but it also fell heavily on the shoulders of the population
The restoration of Moscow's tributary dependence on the Horde lasted from then on for almost another 60 years (until 1474)
1412 - Payment of tribute to the Horde became regular. To ensure this regularity, the Horde forces from time to time made frighteningly reminiscent raids on Rus'.
1415 - Ruin of the Yelets (border, buffer) land by the Horde.
1427 - Raid of Horde troops on Ryazan.
1428 - Raid of the Horde army on the Kostroma lands - Galich Mersky, destruction and robbery of Kostroma, Ples and Lukh.
1437 - Battle of Belevskaya Campaign of Ulu-Muhammad to the Zaoksky lands. Battle of Belev on December 5, 1437 (defeat of the Moscow army) due to the reluctance of the Yuryevich brothers - Shemyaka and Krasny - to allow the army of Ulu-Muhammad to settle in Belev and make peace. Due to the betrayal of the Lithuanian governor of Mtsensk, Grigory Protasyev, who went over to the side of the Tatars, Ulu-Mukhammed won the Battle of Belev, after which he went east to Kazan, where he founded the Kazan Khanate.

Actually, from this moment begins the long struggle of the Russian state with the Kazan Khanate, which Rus' had to wage in parallel with the heir of the Golden Horde - the Great Horde and which only Ivan IV the Terrible managed to complete. The first campaign of the Kazan Tatars against Moscow took place already in 1439. Moscow was burned, but the Kremlin was not taken. The second campaign of the Kazan people (1444-1445) led to the catastrophic defeat of the Russian troops, the capture of the Moscow prince Vasily II the Dark, humiliating world and ultimately the blinding of Vasily II. Further, the raids of the Kazan Tatars on Rus' and the retaliatory Russian actions (1461, 1467-1469, 1478) are not indicated in the table, but they should be kept in mind (See "Kazan Khanate");
1451 - Campaign of Mahmut, son of Kichi-Muhammad, to Moscow. He burned the settlements, but the Kremlin did not take them.
1462 - Ivan III stopped issuing Russian coins with the name of the Khan of the Horde. Statement by Ivan III on the renunciation of the khan's label for the great reign.
1468 - Khan Akhmat's campaign against Ryazan
1471 - Campaign of the Horde to the Moscow borders in the Trans-Oka region
1472 - The Horde army approached the city of Aleksin, but did not cross the Oka. Russian army performed in Kolomna. There was no clash between the two forces. Both sides feared that the outcome of the battle would not be in their favor. Caution in conflicts with the Horde is a characteristic feature of the policy of Ivan III. He didn't want to take any risks.
1474 - Khan Akhmat again approaches the Zaoksk region, on the border with the Moscow Grand Duchy. Peace, or, more precisely, a truce, is concluded on the terms of the Moscow prince paying an indemnity of 140 thousand altyns in two terms: in the spring - 80 thousand, in the fall - 60 thousand. Ivan III again avoids a military conflict.
1480 Great Standing on the Ugra River - Akhmat demands Ivan III to pay tribute for 7 years, during which Moscow stopped paying it. Goes on a campaign against Moscow. Ivan III advances with his army to meet the Khan.

We formally end the history of Russian-Horde relations with the year 1481 as the date of death of the last khan of the Horde, Akhmat, who was killed a year after the Great Standing on the Ugra, since the Horde really ceased to exist as a state organism and administration, and even as a certain territory to which jurisdiction and real the power of this once unified administration.
Formally and in fact, new Tatar states were formed on the former territory of the Golden Horde, much smaller in size, but manageable and relatively consolidated. Of course, the virtual disappearance of a huge empire could not happen overnight and it could not “evaporate” completely without a trace.
People, peoples, the population of the Horde continued to live their former lives and, feeling that catastrophic changes had occurred, nevertheless did not realize them as a complete collapse, as the absolute disappearance from the face of the earth of their former state.
In fact, the process of the collapse of the Horde, especially at the lower social level, continued for another three to four decades during the first quarter of the 16th century.
But the international consequences of the collapse and disappearance of the Horde, on the contrary, affected themselves quite quickly and quite clearly, distinctly. The liquidation of the gigantic empire, which controlled and influenced events from Siberia to the Balakans and from Egypt to the Middle Urals for two and a half centuries, led to a complete change in the international situation not only in this area, but also radically changed the general international position of the Russian state and its military-political plans and actions in relations with the East as a whole.
Moscow was able to quickly, within one decade, radically restructure the strategy and tactics of its eastern foreign policy.
The statement seems to me too categorical: it should be taken into account that the process of fragmentation of the Golden Horde was not a one-time act, but occurred throughout the entire 15th century. The policy of the Russian state changed accordingly. An example is the relationship between Moscow and the Kazan Khanate, which separated from the Horde in 1438 and tried to pursue the same policy. After two successful campaigns against Moscow (1439, 1444-1445), Kazan began to experience increasingly persistent and powerful pressure from the Russian state, which was formally still in vassal dependence on the Great Horde (in the period under review these were the campaigns of 1461, 1467-1469, 1478). ).
Firstly, an active, offensive line was chosen in relation to both rudiments and completely viable heirs of the Horde. The Russian tsars decided not to let them come to their senses, to finish off the already half-defeated enemy, and not to rest on the laurels of the victors.
Secondly, pitting one Tatar group against another was used as a new tactical technique that gave the most useful military-political effect. Significant Tatar formations began to be included in the Russian armed forces to carry out joint attacks on other Tatar military formations, and primarily on the remnants of the Horde.
So, in 1485, 1487 and 1491. Ivan III sent military detachments to strike the troops of the Great Horde, who were attacking Moscow's ally at that time - the Crimean Khan Mengli-Girey.
Particularly significant in military-political terms was the so-called. spring campaign of 1491 to the “Wild Field” along converging directions.

1491 Campaign to the “Wild Field” - 1. The Horde khans Seid-Akhmet and Shig-Akhmet besieged Crimea in May 1491. Ivan III dispatched a huge army of 60 thousand people to help his ally Mengli-Girey. under the leadership of the following military leaders:
a) Prince Peter Nikitich Obolensky;
b) Prince Ivan Mikhailovich Repni-Obolensky;
c) Kasimov prince Satilgan Merdzhulatovich.
2. These independent detachments headed for the Crimea in such a way that they had to approach the rear of the Horde troops from three sides in converging directions in order to squeeze them into pincers, while they would be attacked from the front by the troops of Mengli-Girey.
3. In addition, on June 3 and 8, 1491, the allies were mobilized to attack from the flanks. These were again both Russian and Tatar troops:
a) Kazan Khan Muhammad-Emin and his governors Abash-Ulan and Burash-Seyid;
b) Ivan III's brothers appanage princes Andrei Vasilyevich Bolshoi and Boris Vasilyevich with their troops.

Another new tactical technique introduced in the 90s of the 15th century. Ivan III in his military policy regarding Tatar attacks is a systematic organization of pursuit of Tatar raids invading Russia, which has never been done before.

1492 - The pursuit of the troops of two governors - Fyodor Koltovsky and Goryain Sidorov - and their battle with the Tatars in the area between the Bystraya Sosna and Trudy rivers;
1499 - Pursuit after the Tatars’ raid on Kozelsk, which recaptured from the enemy all the “full” animals and cattle he had taken away;
1500 (summer) - The army of Khan Shig-Ahmed (Great Horde) of 20 thousand people. stood at the mouth of the Tikhaya Sosna River, but did not dare to go further towards the Moscow border;
1500 (autumn) - A new campaign of an even more numerous army of Shig-Akhmed, but further than the Zaokskaya side, i.e. territory of the north of the Oryol region, it did not dare to go;
1501 - On August 30, the 20,000-strong army of the Great Horde began the devastation of the Kursk land, approaching Rylsk, and by November it reached the Bryansk and Novgorod-Seversky lands. The Tatars captured the city of Novgorod-Seversky, but this army of the Great Horde did not go further to the Moscow lands.

In 1501, a coalition of Lithuania, Livonia and the Great Horde was formed, directed against the union of Moscow, Kazan and Crimea. This campaign was part of the war between Muscovite Rus' and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania for the Verkhovsky principalities (1500-1503). It is incorrect to talk about the Tatars seizing the Novgorod-Seversky lands, which were part of their ally - the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and were captured by Moscow in 1500. According to the truce of 1503, almost all of these lands went to Moscow.
1502 Liquidation of the Great Horde - The army of the Great Horde remained to winter at the mouth of the Seim River and near Belgorod. Ivan III then agreed with Mengli-Girey that he would send his troops to expel Shig-Akhmed’s troops from this territory. Mengli-Girey fulfilled this request, inflicting a strong blow on the Great Horde in February 1502.
In May 1502, Mengli-Girey defeated the troops of Shig-Akhmed for the second time at the mouth of the Sula River, where they migrated to spring pastures. This battle effectively ended the remnants of the Great Horde.

This is how Ivan III dealt with it at the beginning of the 16th century. with the Tatar states through the hands of the Tatars themselves.
Thus, from the beginning of the 16th century. the last remnants of the Golden Horde disappeared from the historical arena. And the point was not only that this completely removed from the Moscow state any threat of invasion from the East, seriously strengthened its security - the main, significant result was a sharp change in the formal and actual international legal position of the Russian state, which manifested itself in a change in its international -legal relations with the Tatar states - the “successors” of the Golden Horde.
This was precisely the main historical meaning, basic historical meaning liberation of Russia from Horde dependence.
For the Moscow state, vassal relations ceased, it became a sovereign state, a subject of international relations. This completely changed his position both among the Russian lands and in Europe as a whole.
Until then, for 250 years, the Grand Duke received only unilateral labels from the Horde khans, i.e. permission to own his own fiefdom (principality), or, in other words, the khan’s consent to continue to trust his tenant and vassal, to the fact that he will temporarily not be touched from this post if he fulfills a number of conditions: pay tribute, conduct loyalty to the khan politics, send “gifts,” and participate, if necessary, in the military activities of the Horde.
With the collapse of the Horde and the emergence of new khanates on its ruins - Kazan, Astrakhan, Crimean, Siberian - a completely new situation arose: the institution of vassal submission to Rus' disappeared and ceased. This was expressed in the fact that all relations with the new Tatar states began to occur on a bilateral basis. The conclusion of bilateral treaties on political issues began at the end of wars and at the conclusion of peace. And this was precisely the main and important change.
Outwardly, especially in the first decades, there were no noticeable changes in the relations between Russia and the khanates:
The Moscow princes continued to occasionally pay tribute to the Tatar khans, continued to send them gifts, and the khans of the new Tatar states, in turn, continued to maintain the old forms of relations with the Moscow Grand Duchy, i.e. Sometimes, like the Horde, they organized campaigns against Moscow right up to the walls of the Kremlin, resorted to devastating raids for the meadows, stole cattle and plundered the property of the Grand Duke’s subjects, demanded that he pay indemnity, etc. and so on.
But after the end of hostilities, the parties began to draw legal conclusions - i.e. record their victories and defeats in bilateral documents, conclude peace or truce treaties, sign written obligations. And it was precisely this that significantly changed their true relations, leading to the fact that the entire relationship of forces on both sides actually changed significantly.
That is why it became possible for the Moscow state to purposefully work to change this balance of forces in its favor and ultimately achieve the weakening and liquidation of the new khanates that arose on the ruins of the Golden Horde, not within two and a half centuries, but much faster - in less than 75 years old, in the second half of the 16th century.

"From Ancient Rus' to the Russian Empire." Shishkin Sergey Petrovich, Ufa.
V.V. Pokhlebkina "Tatars and Rus'. 360 years of relations in 1238-1598." (M. "International Relations" 2000).
Soviet Encyclopedic Dictionary. 4th edition, M. 1987.

There are a large number of facts that not only clearly refute the hypothesis of the Tatar-Mongol yoke, but also indicate that history was distorted deliberately, and that this was done for a very specific purpose... But who and why deliberately distorted history? What real events did they want to hide and why?

If we analyze the historical facts, it becomes obvious that the “Tatar-Mongol yoke” was invented in order to hide the consequences of “baptism”. After all, this religion was imposed in a far from peaceful way... In the process of “baptism”, most of the population of the Kyiv principality was destroyed! It definitely becomes clear that those forces that were behind the imposition of this religion subsequently fabricated history, juggling historical facts to suit themselves and their goals...

These facts are known to historians and are not secret, they are publicly available, and anyone can easily find them on the Internet. Skipping scientific research and justifications, which have already been described quite widely, let us summarize the main facts that refute the big lie about the “Tatar-Mongol yoke.”

1. Genghis Khan

Reconstruction of the throne of Genghis Khan with the ancestral tamga with a swastika.

2. Mongolia

The state of Mongolia appeared only in the 1930s, when the Bolsheviks came to the nomads living in the Gobi Desert and told them that they were the descendants of the great Mongols, and their “compatriot” had created the Great Empire in his time, which they were very surprised and happy about . The word "Mughal" is of Greek origin and means "Great". The Greeks used this word to call our ancestors – the Slavs. It has nothing to do with the name of any people (N.V. Levashov “Visible and Invisible Genocide”).

3. Composition of the “Tatar-Mongol” army

70-80% of the army of the “Tatar-Mongols” were Russians, the remaining 20-30% were made up of other small peoples of Rus', in fact, the same as now. This fact is clearly confirmed by a fragment of the icon of Sergius of Radonezh “Battle of Kulikovo”. It clearly shows that the same warriors are fighting on both sides. And this battle is more like a civil war than a war with a foreign conqueror.

4. What did the “Tatar-Mongols” look like?

Pay attention to the drawing of the tomb of Henry II the Pious, who was killed on the Legnica field.

The inscription is as follows: “The figure of a Tatar under the feet of Henry II, Duke of Silesia, Cracow and Poland, placed on the grave in Breslau of this prince, killed in the battle with the Tatars at Liegnitz on April 9, 1241.” As we see, this “Tatar” has a completely Russian appearance, clothes and weapons. The next image shows “the Khan’s palace in the capital of the Mongol Empire, Khanbalyk” (it is believed that Khanbalyk is what it supposedly is).

What is “Mongolian” and what is “Chinese” here? Once again, as in the case of the tomb of Henry II, before us are people of a clearly Slavic appearance. Russian caftans, Streltsy caps, the same thick beards, the same characteristic blades of sabers called “Yelman”. The roof on the left is an almost exact copy of the roofs of old Russian towers... (A. Bushkov, “Russia that never existed”).

5. Genetic examination

According to the latest data obtained as a result of genetic research, it turned out that Tatars and Russians have very close genetics. Whereas the differences between the genetics of Russians and Tatars from the genetics of the Mongols are colossal: “The differences between the Russian gene pool (almost entirely European) and the Mongolian (almost entirely Central Asian) are really great - it’s like two different worlds...” (oagb.ru).

6. Documents during the period of the Tatar-Mongol yoke

During the period of existence of the Tatar-Mongol yoke, not a single document in the Tatar or Mongolian language has been preserved. But there are many documents from this time in Russian.

7. Lack of objective evidence confirming the hypothesis of the Tatar-Mongol yoke

At the moment, there are no originals of any historical documents that would objectively prove that there was a Tatar-Mongol yoke. But there are many fakes designed to convince us of the existence of a fiction called “”. Here is one of these fakes. This text is called “The Word about the Destruction of the Russian Land” and in each publication it is announced as “an excerpt from a poetic work that has not reached us intact... About the Tatar-Mongol invasion”:

“Oh, bright and beautifully decorated Russian land! You are famous for many beauties: you are famous for many lakes, locally revered rivers and springs, mountains, steep hills, high oak forests, clean fields, marvelous animals, various birds, countless great cities, glorious villages, monastery gardens, temples of God and formidable princes, honest boyars and many nobles. You are filled with everything, Russian land, O Orthodox Christian faith!..»

There is not even a hint of the “Tatar-Mongol yoke” in this text. But this “ancient” document contains the following line: “You are filled with everything, Russian land, O Orthodox Christian faith!”

Before the church reform, Nikon, which was carried out in the mid-17th century, was called “orthodox.” It began to be called Orthodox only after this reform... Therefore, this document could have been written no earlier than the mid-17th century and has nothing to do with the era of the “Tatar-Mongol yoke”...

On all maps that were published before 1772 and were not subsequently corrected, you can see the following picture.

The western part of Rus' is called Muscovy, or Moscow Tartary... This small part of Rus' was ruled by the Romanov dynasty. Until the end of the 18th century, the Moscow Tsar was called the ruler of Moscow Tartaria or the Duke (Prince) of Moscow. The rest of Rus', which occupied almost the entire continent of Eurasia in the east and south of Muscovy at that time, is called Tartaria or (see map).

In the 1st edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica of 1771 the following is written about this part of Rus':

“Tartaria, a huge country in the northern part of Asia, bordering Siberia in the north and west: which is called Great Tartary. Those Tartars living south of Muscovy and Siberia are called Astrakhan, Cherkasy and Dagestan, those living in the northwest of the Caspian Sea are called Kalmyk Tartars and which occupy the territory between Siberia and the Caspian Sea; Uzbek Tartars and Mongols, who live north of Persia and India, and, finally, Tibetans, living northwest of China..."(see website “Food RA”)…

Where did the name Tartaria come from?

Our ancestors knew the laws of nature and the real structure of the world, life, and man. But, as now, the level of development of each person was not the same in those days. People who went much further in their development than others, and who could control space and matter (control the weather, heal diseases, see the future, etc.) were called Magi. Those Magi who knew how to control space at the planetary level and above were called Gods.

That is, the meaning of the word God among our ancestors was not at all what it is now. The gods were people who went much further in their development than the vast majority of people. For ordinary person their abilities seemed incredible, however, the gods were also people, and the capabilities of each god had their own limits.

Our ancestors had patrons - he was also called Dazhdbog (the giving God) and his sister - the Goddess Tara. These Gods helped people solve problems that our ancestors could not solve on their own. So, the gods Tarkh and Tara taught our ancestors how to build houses, cultivate the land, write and much more, which was necessary in order to survive after the disaster and eventually restore civilization.

Therefore, quite recently our ancestors told strangers “We are the children of Tarkh and Tara...”. They said this because in their development, they really were children in relation to Tarkh and Tara, who had significantly advanced in development. And residents of other countries called our ancestors “Tarkhtars”, and later, due to the difficulty of pronunciation, “Tartars”. This is where the name of the country came from - Tartaria...

Baptism of Rus'

What does the baptism of Rus' have to do with it? – some may ask. As it turned out, it had a lot to do with it. After all, baptism did not take place in a peaceful way... Before baptism, people in Rus' were educated, almost everyone knew how to read, write, and count (see article). Let us recall from the school history curriculum, at least, the same “Birch Bark Letters” - letters that peasants wrote to each other on birch bark from one village to another.

Our ancestors had a Vedic worldview, as I wrote above, it was not a religion. Since the essence of any religion comes down to the blind acceptance of any dogmas and rules, without a deep understanding of why it is necessary to do it this way and not otherwise. The Vedic worldview gave people precisely an understanding of the real world, an understanding of how the world works, what is good and what is bad.

People saw what happened after the “baptism” in neighboring countries, when, under the influence of religion, a successful, highly developed country with an educated population, in a matter of years, plunged into ignorance and chaos, where only representatives of the aristocracy could read and write, and not all of them. ..

Everyone understood perfectly well what the “Greek Religion” carried, into which Prince Vladimir the Bloody and those who stood behind him were going to baptize Kievan Rus. Therefore, none of the residents of the then Principality of Kyiv (a province that broke away from) accepted this religion. But Vladimir had great forces behind him, and they were not going to retreat.

In the process of “baptism” over 12 years of forced Christianization, almost the entire adult population was destroyed, with rare exceptions Kievan Rus. Because such a “teaching” could be imposed only on unreasonable children who, due to their youth, could not yet understand that such a religion turned them into slaves in both the physical and spiritual sense of the word. Everyone who refused to accept the new “faith” was killed. This is confirmed by the facts that have reached us. If before the “baptism” there were 300 cities and 12 million inhabitants on the territory of Kievan Rus, then after the “baptism” only 30 cities and 3 million people remained! 270 cities were destroyed! 9 million people were killed! (Diy Vladimir, “Orthodox Rus' before the adoption of Christianity and after”).

But despite the fact that almost the entire adult population of Kievan Rus was destroyed by the “holy” baptists, the Vedic tradition did not disappear. On the lands of Kievan Rus, the so-called dual faith was established. Most of the population formally recognized the imposed religion of the slaves, and they themselves continued to live according to the Vedic tradition, although without flaunting it. And this phenomenon was observed not only among the masses, but also among part of the ruling elite. And this state of affairs continued until the reform of Patriarch Nikon, who figured out how to deceive everyone.

conclusions

In fact, after baptism in the Principality of Kiev, only children and a very small part of the adult population remained alive, which accepted the Greek religion - 3 million people out of a population of 12 million before baptism. The principality was completely devastated, most of the cities, towns and hamlets were plundered and burned. But the authors of the version about the “Tatar-Mongol yoke” paint exactly the same picture for us, the only difference is that these same cruel actions were allegedly carried out there by “Tatar-Mongols”!

As always, the winner writes history. And it becomes obvious that in order to hide all the cruelty with which the Principality of Kiev was baptized, and in order to suppress all possible questions, the “Tatar-Mongol yoke” was subsequently invented. The children were raised in the traditions of the Greek religion (the cult of Dionysius, and later Christianity) and history was rewritten, where all the cruelty was blamed on the “wild nomads”...

The famous statement of President V.V. Putin about, in which the Russians allegedly fought against the Tatars and Mongols...

The Tatar-Mongol yoke is the biggest myth in history.

o (Mongol-Tatar, Tatar-Mongol, Horde) - the traditional name for the system of exploitation of Russian lands by nomadic conquerors who came from the East from 1237 to 1480.

This system was aimed at carrying out mass terror and robbing the Russian people by levying cruel exactions. She acted primarily in the interests of the Mongolian nomadic military-feudal nobility (noyons), in whose favor the lion's share of the collected tribute went.

The Mongol-Tatar yoke was established as a result of the invasion of Batu Khan in the 13th century. Until the early 1260s, Rus' was under the rule of the great Mongol khans, and then the khans of the Golden Horde.

The Russian principalities were not directly part of the Mongol state and retained the local princely administration, the activities of which were controlled by the Baskaks - the khan's representatives in the conquered lands. The Russian princes were tributaries of the Mongol khans and received from them labels for ownership of their principalities. Formally, the Mongol-Tatar yoke was established in 1243, when Prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich received from the Mongols a label for the Grand Duchy of Vladimir. Rus', according to the label, lost the right to fight and had to regularly pay tribute to the khans twice annually (in spring and autumn).

There was no permanent Mongol-Tatar army on the territory of Rus'. The yoke was supported by punitive campaigns and repressions against rebellious princes. The regular flow of tribute from Russian lands began after the census of 1257-1259, conducted by Mongol “numerals”. The units of taxation were: in cities - yard, in rural areas - “village”, “plow”, “plough”. Only the clergy were exempt from tribute. The main “Horde burdens” were: “exit”, or “tsar’s tribute” - a tax directly for the Mongol khan; trade fees (“myt”, “tamka”); carriage duties (“pits”, “carts”); maintenance of the khan's ambassadors (“food”); various “gifts” and “honors” to the khan, his relatives and associates. Every year, a huge amount of silver left the Russian lands as tribute. Large “requests” for military and other needs were periodically collected. In addition, the Russian princes were obliged, by order of the khan, to send soldiers to participate in campaigns and in round-up hunts (“lovitva”). In the late 1250s and early 1260s, tribute was collected from the Russian principalities by Muslim merchants (“besermen”), who bought this right from the great Mongol Khan. Most of the tribute went to the Great Khan in Mongolia. During the uprisings of 1262, the “besermans” were expelled from Russian cities, and the responsibility for collecting tribute passed to the local princes.

Rus''s struggle against the yoke became increasingly widespread. In 1285, Grand Duke Dmitry Alexandrovich (son of Alexander Nevsky) defeated and expelled the army of the “Horde prince”. At the end of the 13th - first quarter of the 14th century, performances in Russian cities led to the elimination of the Baskas. With the strengthening of the Moscow principality, the Tatar yoke gradually weakened. Moscow Prince Ivan Kalita (reigned in 1325-1340) achieved the right to collect “exit” from all Russian principalities. From the middle of the 14th century, the orders of the khans of the Golden Horde, not supported by a real military threat, were no longer carried out by the Russian princes. Dmitry Donskoy (1359-1389) did not recognize the khan's labels issued to his rivals and seized the Grand Duchy of Vladimir by force. In 1378, he defeated the Tatar army on the Vozha River in the Ryazan land, and in 1380 he defeated the Golden Horde ruler Mamai in the Battle of Kulikovo.

However, after Tokhtamysh’s campaign and the capture of Moscow in 1382, Rus' was forced to again recognize the power of the Golden Horde and pay tribute, but already Vasily I Dmitrievich (1389-1425) received the great reign of Vladimir without the khan’s label, as “his patrimony.” Under him, the yoke was nominal. Tribute was paid irregularly, and the Russian princes pursued independent policies. The attempt of the Golden Horde ruler Edigei (1408) to restore full power over Russia ended in failure: he failed to take Moscow. The strife that began in the Golden Horde opened up the possibility for Russia to overthrow the Tatar yoke.

However, in the middle of the 15th century, Muscovite Rus' itself experienced a period of internecine war, which weakened its military potential. During these years, the Tatar rulers organized a series of devastating invasions, but they were no longer able to bring the Russians to complete submission. The unification of Russian lands around Moscow led to the concentration in the hands of the Moscow princes of such political power that the weakening Tatar khans could not cope with. The Grand Duke of Moscow Ivan III Vasilyevich (1462-1505) refused to pay tribute in 1476. In 1480, after the unsuccessful campaign of the Khan of the Great Horde Akhmat and “standing on the Ugra”, the yoke was finally overthrown.

The Mongol-Tatar yoke had negative, regressive consequences for the economic, political and cultural development of the Russian lands, and was a brake on the growth of the productive forces of Rus', which were at a higher socio-economic level compared to the productive forces of the Mongol state. It artificially preserved for a long time the purely feudal natural character of the economy. Politically, the consequences of the yoke were manifested in the disruption of the natural process of state development of Rus', in the artificial maintenance of its fragmentation. The Mongol-Tatar yoke, which lasted two and a half centuries, was one of the reasons for the economic, political and cultural lag of Rus' from Western European countries.

The material was prepared based on information from open sources.

INFORMATION FOR TOURISTS

HISTORY OF MONGOLIA

The Mongols are one of the oldest nations and have a rich history dating back thousands of years. In 2006, Mongolia celebrates the 800th anniversary of the formation of the Mongolian state and the 840th anniversary of Genghis Khan.

PREHISTORIC PERIOD

Many millions of years ago, the territory of modern Mongolia was covered with thickets of ferns, and the climate was hot and humid. Dinosaurs lived on earth for 160 million years and died out during their heyday. The reasons for this phenomenon have not yet been precisely established and scientists have put forward different hypotheses.

Humanity learned about the existence of these giant animals only 150 years ago. Science knows several hundred species of dinosaurs. The most famous discovery of dinosaur remains belongs to an American scientific expedition led by R. Andrews, which was organized in the 20s of the last century in the Gobi Desert. Now this find is kept in the Local History Museum of the City of New York. Dinosaur bones found in Mongolia are also in museums in St. Petersburg and Warsaw.

The exhibition of the Natural History Museum is one of the best in the world and has been exhibited in many countries.

On the territory of present-day Mongolia, the ancestors of modern humans appeared over 800 thousand years ago. Homo Sapiens themselves lived here 40 thousand years ago. Researchers suggest that 20-25 thousand years ago there was a great migration from Central Asia to America through the Bering Strait.

On the banks of the Yellow River, the Chinese founded one of the first civilizations in human history and have had writing since ancient times. The written monuments of the Chinese talk a lot about nomads who constantly raided China. The Chinese called these foreigners “Hu,” which means “barbarians,” and divided them into “Xionghu,” the northern savages, and “Donghu,” the eastern savages. At that time, China was not a single state and consisted of several independent kingdoms, and the nomads existed in separate tribes and did not have a state system. Chinese
The kingdoms, fearing raids by nomadic tribes, built walls along the northern border of their territories. In 221 BC. The state of Qin was formed and thus for the first time the disparate kingdoms were united into one whole. The emperor of the Qing state, Shi Huangdi, united the numerous walls built by the kingdoms into one seamless system of defense against nomads. In order to break through the strong defense, the nomads united under the leadership of the Shanyu Mode and formed a strong state, which went down in history as the Xiongnu. Thus, in 209 BC. The first state system was established on the territory of present-day Mongolia. The question of the origin of the Xiongnu, whether they were Turks, Mongols or another nationality, remains controversial to this day. However, the states of the Seljuks, Xiongnu, Turks, Khitans, Avars, China, the Great Mongol Empire, the Golden Horde, Ottoman Empire, Timur's empire, as well as current states such as Mongolia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkey, Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan are the direct successors of the first nomadic state of the Xiongnu. For about 400 years the Xiongnu played an important role historical role. Later, after the division into southern and northern Xiongnu, they were defeated by the Chinese and Donghu, and thus the Xiongnu state ceased to exist. The nomads, united against the Xiongnu, in 156 formed the most powerful state in Central Asia - Xianbi. At this time, the powerful Han dynasty ruled in China. In the 3rd century, the Toba separated from the Xianbi and subsequently captured Northern China. Later, Toba's descendants were assimilated by the Chinese. The descendants of the Donghu Rourans had strong troops and in the 5th century they conquered the territory from Harshar to Korea. They were the first to use the title of khan. Researchers believe that the Rourans were a Mongol tribe.

The Tang Dynasty in China was a time of cultural flourishing. Later, the Rourans were conquered by the Turks, and later, during the wars, they reached European territories. They are known in history as Avars. They owned the largest conquests made before the advent of Genghis Khan. By the 7th century, the Turks had become the most powerful state in the world. During their campaigns they reached Asia Minor and became the ancestors of modern Turks. The Turkic state fell after numerous attacks by powerful states united against them. On the territory of the defeated Turkic state, the Uyghur state arose. The capital of the Uyghur state Karabalgas was discovered during excavations in the Orkhon River valley. In 840 they were defeated by the Kyrgyz, who reached them along the Yenisei River. The Kyrgyz ruled briefly in Central Asia and were driven out by the Mongol Khitan tribes to the Pamirs. Since then, only the Mongols began to rule on the territory of Mongolia. As they grew stronger, the Khitans gradually moved south from the Great Wall of China and during the development of present-day Beijing as the capital, they largely disappeared into the Chinese population and remained in Chinese history as the Liao Dynasty.

PERIOD OF THE GREAT MONGOL EMPIRE

In 924 Turkic tribes left the territory of present-day Mongolia, and the Mongols began to rule themselves. Apart from the brief period of Khitan rule, the Mongols could not form a single state. By the 13th century, there were many tribes on the territory of Mongolia, such as the Naiman, Tatars, Khamag-Mongols, Keraits, Onyuds, Merkits, etc. After the Khamag-Mongol Khan Khabul, the Mongol tribes were without a leader until 1189 His descendant Temujin was not proclaimed Khan of all Mongols and received the title Genghis Khan.

Temujin's first major military enterprise was the war against the Tatars, launched jointly with Togoril around 1200. The Tatars at that time had difficulty repelling the attacks of the Jin troops that entered their possessions. Taking advantage of the favorable situation, Temujin and Togoril inflicted a number of strong blows on the Tatars and captured rich booty. The Jin government awarded high titles to the steppe leaders as a reward for the defeat of the Tatars. Temujin received the title "jauthuri" (military commissar), and Togoril - "van" (prince), from that time he became known as Van Khan. In 1202, Temujin independently opposed the Tatars. Temujin's victories caused the consolidation of the forces of his opponents. A whole coalition took shape, including Tatars, Taichiuts, Merkits, Oirats and other tribes, which elected Jamukha as their khan. In the spring of 1203, a battle took place that ended in the complete defeat of the forces of Jamukha. This victory further strengthened the Temujin ulus.

In 1204, Temujin defeated the Naimans. Their ruler Tayan Khan died, and his son Kuchuluk fled to the territory of Semirechye in the country of the Karakitai (southwest of Lake Balkhash).

At the kurultai in 1206, Temujin was proclaimed the great khan over all tribes - Genghis Khan. Mongolia has been transformed: the scattered and warring Mongolian nomadic tribes have united into a single state.

After Temujin became the all-Mongol ruler, his policies began to reflect the interests of the Noyon movement even more clearly. The Noyons needed internal and external activities that would help consolidate their dominance and increase their income. New wars of conquest and the robbery of rich countries were supposed to ensure the expansion of the sphere of feudal exploitation and the strengthening of the class positions of the noyons.

The administrative system created under Genghis Khan was adapted to achieve these goals. He divided the entire population into tens, hundreds, thousands and tumens (ten thousand), thereby mixing tribes and clans and appointing specially selected people from his confidants and nukers as commanders over them. All adult and healthy men were considered warriors who ran their households in peacetime and took up arms in wartime. Such an organization provided Genghis Khan with the opportunity to increase his armed forces up to approximately 95 thousand soldiers.

Individual hundreds, thousands and tumens, together with the territory for nomadism, were given into the possession of one or another noyon. The Great Khan, considering himself the owner of all the land in the state, distributed land and arats into the possession of noyons, on the condition that they would regularly perform certain duties in return. The most important duty was military service. Each noyon was obliged, at the first request of the overlord, to field the required number of warriors in the field. Noyon, in his inheritance, could exploit the labor of the arats, distributing his cattle to them for grazing or involving them directly in work on his farm. Small noyons served large ones.

Under Genghis Khan, the enslavement of arats was legalized, and unauthorized movement from one dozen, hundreds, thousands or tumens to others was prohibited. This ban meant the formal attachment of the arats to the land of the noyons - for migrating from their possessions, the arats faced the death penalty.

Genghis Khan elevated the written law to a cult and was a supporter of strong law and order. He created a network of communication lines in his empire, courier communications on a large scale for military and administrative purposes, and organized intelligence, including economic intelligence.

Genghis Khan divided the country into two “wings”. He placed Boorcha at the head of the right wing, and Mukhali, his two most faithful and experienced associates, at the head of the left. He made the positions and ranks of senior and highest military leaders - centurions, thousanders and temniks - hereditary in the family of those who, with their faithful service, helped him seize the khan's throne.

In 1207-1211, the Mongols conquered the land of the Yakuts, Kyrgyz and Uighurs, that is, they subjugated almost all the main tribes and peoples of Siberia, imposing tribute on them. In 1209, Genghis Khan conquered Central Asia and turned his attention to the south.

Before the conquest of China, Genghis Khan decided to secure the eastern border by capturing in 1207 the Tangut state of Xi-Xia, who had previously conquered Northern China from the dynasty of the Chinese Song emperors and created their own state, which was located between his possessions and the Jin state. Having captured several fortified cities, in the summer of 1208 the “True Ruler” retreated to Longjin, waiting out the unbearable heat that fell that year. Meanwhile, news reaches him that his old enemies Tokhta-beki and Kuchluk are preparing for a new war with him. Anticipating their invasion and having carefully prepared, Genghis Khan defeated them completely in a battle on the banks of the Irtysh.

Satisfied with the victory, Temujin again sends his troops against Xi-Xia. After defeating an army of Chinese Tatars, he captured the fortress and passage in the Great Wall of China and in 1213 invaded the Chinese Empire itself, the state of Jin and advanced as far as Nianxi in Hanshu Province. With increasing persistence, Genghis Khan led his troops, strewing the road with corpses, deep into the continent and established his power even over the province of Liaodong, central to the empire. Several Chinese commanders, seeing that the Mongol conqueror was gaining constant victories, ran over to his side. The garrisons surrendered without a fight.

Having established his position along the entire Great Wall of China, in the fall of 1213 Temujin sent three armies to different parts of the Chinese Empire. One of them, under the command of the three sons of Genghis Khan - Jochi, Chagatai and Ogedei, headed south. Another, led by Temujin's brothers and generals, moved east to the sea. Genghis Khan himself and his youngest son Tolui, at the head of the main forces, set out in a southeastern direction. The First Army advanced as far as Honan and, after capturing twenty-eight cities, joined Genghis Khan on the Great Western Road. The army under the command of Temujin's brothers and generals captured the province of Liao-hsi, and Genghis Khan himself ended his triumphant campaign only after he reached the sea rocky cape in Shandong province. But either fearing civil strife, or due to other reasons, he decides in the spring of 1214 to return to Mongolia and makes peace with the Chinese emperor, leaving Beijing to him. However, before the leader of the Mongols had time to leave the Great Wall of China, the Chinese emperor moved his court further away, to Kaifeng. This step was perceived by Temujin as a manifestation of hostility, and he again sent troops into the empire, now doomed to destruction. The war continued.

The Jurchen troops in China, replenished by the aborigines, fought the Mongols until 1235 on their own initiative, but were defeated and exterminated by Genghis Khan's successor Ogedei.

Following China, Genghis Khan was preparing for a campaign in Kazakhstan and Central Asia. He was especially attracted to the flourishing cities of Southern Kazakhstan and Zhetysu. He decided to implement his plan through the valley of the Ili River, where rich cities were located and ruled by Genghis Khan’s longtime enemy, the Naiman Khan Kuchluk.

While Genghis Khan was conquering more and more cities and provinces of China, the fugitive Naiman Khan Kuchluk asked the gurkhan who had given him refuge to help gather the remnants of the army defeated at the Irtysh. Having gained a fairly strong army under his hand, Kuchluk entered into an alliance against his overlord with the Shah of Khorezm Muhammad, who had previously paid tribute to the Karakitays. After a short but decisive military campaign, the allies were left with a big gain, and the gurkhan was forced to relinquish power in favor of the uninvited guest. In 1213, Gurkhan Zhilugu died, and the Naiman khan became the sovereign ruler of Semirechye. Sairam, Tashkent, and the northern part of Fergana came under his power. Having become an irreconcilable opponent of Khorezm, Kuchluk began persecution of Muslims in his domains, which aroused the hatred of the settled population of Zhetysu. The ruler of Koylyk (in the valley of the Ili River) Arslan Khan, and then the ruler of Almalyk (northwest of modern Gulja) Bu-zar moved away from the Naimans and declared themselves subjects of Genghis Khan.

In 1218, Jebe's troops, together with the troops of the rulers of Koylyk and Almalyk, invaded the lands of the Karakitai. The Mongols conquered Semirechye and Eastern Turkestan, which were owned by Kuchluk. In the first battle, Jebe defeated the Naiman. The Mongols allowed Muslims to perform public worship, which had previously been prohibited by the Naiman, which contributed to the transition of the entire settled population to the side of the Mongols. Kuchluk, unable to organize resistance, fled to Afghanistan, where he was caught and killed. The residents of Balasagun opened the gates to the Mongols, for which the city received the name Gobalyk - “good city”. The road to Khorezm opened before Genghis Khan.

After the conquest of China and Khorezm, the supreme ruler of the Mongol clan leaders, Genghis Khan, sent a strong cavalry corps under the command of Jebe and Subedei to explore the “western lands”. They walked along the southern shore of the Caspian Sea, then, after the devastation of Northern Iran, they penetrated Transcaucasia, defeated the Georgian army (1222) and, moving north along the western shore of the Caspian Sea, met a united army of Polovtsians, Lezgins, Circassians and Alans in the North Caucasus. A battle took place, which did not have decisive consequences. Then the conquerors split the ranks of the enemy. They gave gifts to the Polovtsians and promised not to touch them. The latter began to disperse to their nomadic camps. Taking advantage of this, the Mongols easily defeated the Alans, Lezgins and Circassians, and then defeated the Polovtsians piecemeal. At the beginning of 1223, the Mongols invaded Crimea, took the city of Surozh (Sudak) and again moved into the Polovtsian steppes.

The Polovtsians fled to Rus'. Leaving the Mongol army, Khan Kotyan, through his ambassadors, asked not to refuse him the help of his son-in-law Mstislav the Udal, as well as Mstislav III Romanovich, the ruling Grand Duke of Kyiv. At the beginning of 1223, a large princely congress was convened in Kyiv, where it was agreed that the armed forces of the princes of Kyiv, Galicia, Chernigov, Seversk, Smolensk and Volyn principalities, united, should support the Polovtsians. The Dnieper, near the island of Khortitsa, was appointed as the gathering place for the Russian united army. Here envoys from the Mongol camp were met, inviting the Russian military leaders to break the alliance with the Polovtsians and return to Rus'. Taking into account the experience of the Cumans (who in 1222 persuaded the Mongols to break their alliance with the Alans, after which Jebe defeated the Alans and attacked the Cumans), Mstislav executed the envoys. In the battle on the Kalka River, the troops of Daniil of Galitsky, Mstislav the Udal and Khan Kotyan, without informing the other princes, decided to “deal with” the Mongols on their own and crossed to the eastern bank, where on May 31, 1223 they were completely defeated while passively contemplating this bloody battle on the part of the main Russian forces led by Mstislav III, located on the elevated opposite bank of the Kalka.

Mstislav III, having fenced himself in with a tyn, held the defense for three days after the battle, and then came to an agreement with Jebe and Subedai to lay down arms and freely retreat to Rus', as he had not participated in the battle. However, he, his army and the princes who trusted him were treacherously captured by the Mongols and cruelly tortured as “traitors to their own army.”

After the victory, the Mongols organized the pursuit of the remnants of the Russian army (only every tenth soldier returned from the Azov region), destroying cities and villages in the Dnieper direction, capturing civilians. However, the disciplined Mongol military leaders had no orders to linger in Rus'. They were soon recalled by Genghis Khan, who considered that the main task of the reconnaissance campaign to the west had been successfully completed. On the way back at the mouth of the Kama, the troops of Jebe and Subedei suffered a serious defeat from the Volga Bulgars, who refused to recognize the power of Genghis Khan over themselves. After this failure, the Mongols went down to Saksin and along the Caspian steppes returned to Asia, where in 1225 they united with the main forces of the Mongol army.

The Mongol forces remaining in China enjoyed the same success as the armies in Western Asia. The Mongol Empire was expanded with several new conquered provinces lying north of the Yellow River, with the exception of one or two cities. After the death of Emperor Xuyin Zong in 1223, the Northern Chinese Empire virtually ceased to exist, and the borders of the Mongol Empire almost coincided with the borders of Central and Southern China, ruled by the imperial Song dynasty.

Upon returning from Central Asia, Genghis Khan once again led his army through Western China. In 1225 or early 1226, Genghis launched a campaign against the Tangut country. During this campaign, astrologers informed the Mongol leader that five planets were in unfavorable alignment. The superstitious Mongol believed that he was in danger. Under the power of foreboding, the formidable conqueror went home, but on the way he fell ill and died on August 25, 1227.

After the death of Genghis Khan, his third son Ogedei became khan in 1229. During Ogedei's reign, the empire's borders expanded rapidly. In the north-west, Batu Khan (Batu) founded the Golden Horde and conquered the principalities of Rus' one after another, destroyed Kyiv, and the next year attacked Central Europe, captured Poland, Bohemia, Hungary and reached the Adriatic Sea. Ogedei Khan organized a second campaign against northern China, which was ruled by the Liao dynasty, and in 1234 the war, which had lasted almost 20 years, ended. Immediately after this, Ogedei Khan declared war on the Song Dynasty of Southern China, which was ended by Kublai Khan in 1279.

In 1241, Ogedei and Chagadai died almost simultaneously and the khan's throne remained unoccupied. As a result of a five-year struggle for power, Guyuk became khan, but he died after one year of rule. In 1251, Tolui's son Mongke became khan. Munke Khan's son Hulagu crossed the Amu Darya River in 1256 and declared war on the Muslim world. His troops reached the Red Sea, conquered large lands and burned many cities. Hulagu captured the city of Baghdad and killed about 800 thousand people. The Mongols had never conquered such a rich and large city before. Hulagu planned to conquer northern Africa, but in 1251 Mongke Khan died in Karakorum. Due to the struggle between the two younger brothers Kublai and Arig-Bug for the throne, he had to interrupt his successful campaign. Later, Hulagu Khan created the Ilkhan state, which lasted for many years. Thus, to the west of Mongolia there were huge states (uluses) created by the children of Genghis Khan: the Golden Horde, the White Horde, the state of Hulagu, and the largest state, Yuan, was founded in 1260 by Kublai Khan, whose capital was the city of Beijing. Kublai and Arig-Bugha fought for a long time for the Khan's throne. After the death of his brother Möngke, Kublai fought in South China, where he urgently convened a kurultai (assembly) and was elected khan. At the same time, his younger brother Arig-Buga in Karakorum was elected khan, but Kublai sent troops against his brother and forced him to recognize himself as khan. The following year, Kublai left Karakorum forever and went to Dadu, modern Beijing, and founded the Yuan Dynasty, which means "great beginning." The foundation of this dynasty was the beginning of the collapse of Great Mongolia and the beginning of the development of large independent states of the descendants of Genghis Khan. Kublai Khan continued the war in the south and captured southern China in 1272. The Yuan State was the strongest and most powerful state at that time. Kublai Khan continued to wage war in a southern direction and captured the Indochina peninsula, the islands of Java and Sumatra.

Kublai Khan made attempts to conquer Japan. Korea was already under the rule of the Mongol Khan, and he made attempts from there to attack Japan in 1274 and 1281.
During the first attack, the Mongols had 900 ships and 40 thousand soldiers. The second time there were already 4,400 ships and 140 thousand soldiers. It was the largest fleet during the reign of Kublai Khan. However, every Mongol attempt to capture Japan was thwarted by a typhoon and all the ships were sunk. Kublai Khan ruled the Yuan State for 34 years and died in 1294. After his death, the state of the Mongol Yuan dynasty lasted another 70 years until the dynasty was overthrown by the rebel Chinese during the reign of Khan Togon-Tumur. The capital of the Mongol Khan was moved back to Karakorum. Another state founded by the descendants of Genghis Khan, Jochi and Batu, was the Golden Horde.

Over time, the empire split into several small states. Thus, in the area from Altai mountains to the Black Sea, many nationalities of Turkic origin appeared, such as Bashkirs, Tatars, Circassians, Khakassians, Nogais, Kabardians, Crimean Tatars, etc. Mavaranahr, which arose on the territory of the Chagadai state, was powerful during the reign of Tumur Khan, capturing territories from Baghdad to China , but also fell apart. The Ilkhan Empire of Hulagu revived briefly during the period of Ghazan Khan, but soon Persia, the Arab state, and Turkey began to revive and the 500-year rule of the Ottoman Empire was established. Without a doubt, the Mongols were the dominant people in the 13th century, and Mongolia became famous throughout the world.

After the fall of the Yuan Dynasty, the Mongols who lived there returned to their homeland and lived there freely until they were captured by the Manchus. This time is marked in history as the period of small khans; without a single khan, the Mongols were divided into separate principalities. Of the forty tumens, or principalities, that existed during the time of Genghis Khan, by that time only six remained. There were also 4 Oirat tumens. Therefore, the whole of Mongolia was sometimes called “forty and four.” The Oirats, first of all, wanted to control all the Mongols, and therefore there was a constant struggle for power. Taking advantage of this, the Chinese regularly attacked the Mongols and one day reached Karakorum and destroyed it. In the 16th century Dayan Khan united the Mongols again, but after his death the struggle for the throne began. Over the course of 10 years, 5 khans changed on the throne and the state eventually ceased to exist.

When Dayan Khan's youngest son Geresendze seized power, the name Khalkha was assigned to Northern Mongolia. He divided it among his seven sons. This is how the first administrative units of khoshuns (districts) were formed. The Mongolian nobility quarreled a lot with each other, they came up with various titles and titles that elevated them. Abatai, the grandson of Geresenedze, called himself Tushetu Khan, his cousin Sholoy called himself Setsen Khan, and Luikhar Zasagtu Khan. During the Manchu Qing dynasty in 1752, the aimag of Sain-Noyon Khan broke away from the territory of the aimags of Tushetu Khan and Zasag Khan.

MONGOLIA DURING THE MANCHU QING DYNASTY

At the beginning of the 17th century. The Manchus, who lived in the northeast of what is now China, unexpectedly quickly began to gain strength. They attacked the fragmented Mongol tribes and forced them to pay tribute. In 1636, the Manchus annexed Inner Mongolia. After capturing Beijing in 1644, they founded the Qing Dynasty and unified all of China within two years. They then turned their attention north towards Mongolia. As a result of conflicts between the Khalkhas and Oirats, as well as the skillful instigation of quarrels on the part of Tibet, the Manchus managed to annex Mongolia in 1696.

After the signing of the agreement between the Qing Empire and Russia in 1725 in Kyakhta, the Russian-Chinese border was completely defined. Taking advantage of the weakness of the splintered Oirats, a Manchu army of 50 thousand soldiers defeated them and annexed them into the empire in 1755. Thus, the Manchus annexed Mongolia to China after 130 years of effort. In 1755-1757 The Oirats began an uprising, and at the same time the Khalkhas resisted. As a precaution against the Mongols, military units were stationed in Ulyasutai. Administratively, Mongolia was divided into 4 Khalkha and 2 Derbet aimags with a total of 125 khoshuns (an administrative unit during the reign of the Manchus). Since the Bogdo Gegen Jabdzundamba supported Amarsana, the leader of the uprising, Beijing decided to invite subsequent Bogdo Gegen only from Tibet. The residence of Bogdo Gegen was located in Da Khuree (Urga). Later, an amban office was created in Kobdo and a customs office in Kyakhta. The Ministry of Mongolian Affairs "Jurgan" was opened in Beijing, through which relations were established between the Mongols and the Manchu-Chinese Empire. The Manchus themselves were half nomads. Therefore, to prevent Sinicization, they banned all relations between the Mongols and the Chinese. Chinese traders were only allowed a short time and to come to Mongolia along a certain route and were prohibited from living here permanently and carrying out any other activities other than trade.

Thus, Mongolia was at that time a vassal province of the Manchu Qing Empire with special rights. But later the small population of Manchuria was assimilated by the Chinese.

FIGHT FOR INDEPENDENCE

Early 20th century found Mongolia on the verge of complete impoverishment and ruin. The Manchu yoke had a detrimental effect not only on the material living conditions of the Mongolian people, but also on their physical condition. At the same time, there were many foreign merchants and moneylenders in the country, in whose hands enormous wealth accumulated. Discontent grew increasingly in the country, resulting in spontaneous uprisings of the arats against the Manchu authorities. Thus, by 1911, real conditions were emerging for a national struggle in Mongolia to overthrow more than two centuries of the Manchu yoke. In July 1911, in Urga (now Ulaanbaatar), a meeting was held secretly from the Manchu authorities, in which the largest secular and spiritual leaders, led by Bogdo Gegen (His Serene Bogdo), took part. Taking into account the new course of Manchu policy and the mood of the Mongol people, the meeting participants recognized it as impossible for Mongolia to remain under the rule of the Qing dynasty any longer. At this time, the national liberation movement was rapidly developing throughout the country, starting from Urga and ending with the province of Khovd.

December 1, 1911 an appeal to the Mongolian people was published, which said: “Our Mongolia from the very beginning of its existence was an independent state, and therefore, according to ancient law, Mongolia declares itself an independent power from others in the conduct of its affairs. In view of the above, it is declared that we, Mongols, from now on we do not submit to the Manchu and Chinese officials, whose power is completely destroyed, and as a result they must go home." On December 4, 1911, the Manchu Amban Sando and his other officials left Urga for China.

December 29, 1911 In Urga, in the Dzun-khuree monastery, a ceremony took place for the head of the Lamaist Church, Bogdo Gegen, who received the title “Elevated by Many,” to the khan’s throne.

A government with five ministries was formed and the city of Khuree was declared the capital. After the liberation of Kobdo, they were joined by the Oirats, as well as Barga and most of the Khoshuns of Inner Mongolia. As a result of long disputes in 1915 A historical tripartite Russian-Mongolian-Chinese agreement was concluded in Kyakhta. China wanted to completely subjugate Mongolia, which the Mongols fiercely resisted. Russia was interested in creating autonomy only in Outer Mongolia and sought this. After years of disputes, Mongolia agreed that Inner Mongolia would be completely subordinated to China, and Outer Mongolia would be an autonomy with special rights under Chinese suzerainty. At this time, a fierce struggle was going on in China. A representative of one of the groups, Xu Shuzheng, arrived in Mongolia with troops and canceled the agreement of the three states and dissolved the government of Bogdo Gegen.

December 29, 2007 Mongolia will celebrate National Freedom Day for the first time. This day is celebrated in accordance with the amendments introduced by Parliament in August 2007 to the law on general holidays and significant dates.

PERIOD OF REVOLUTIONARY TRANSFORMATIONS 1919-1924

In 1917, the October Revolution took place in Russia. Then there was a long Civil War. Mongolia, having lost its autonomy, asked for help from different states. Bodoo and Danzan, representatives of the People's Party, visited Russia. But Soviet Russia viewed Mongolia as part of China and refused to expel Chinese troops from the country.

The Mongolian people's army under the command of Sukhbaatar and units of the Soviet Red Army that came to the aid of the Mongolian people in May - August 1921 defeated the White Guard troops of Lieutenant General Baron Ungern von Sternberg. On July 6, 1921, Urga (now Ulaanbaatar) was liberated. On July 10, the Provisional People's Government was reorganized into a permanent People's Government; Sukhbaatar became part of it, taking the post of Minister of War. Soviet Russia did not agree with Mongolia's independence, but in 1921 it recognized the government led by Bodoo. The new government carried out the coronation of Bogdo Gegen and established a limited monarchy. It was also abolished

serfdom and a course was set for the creation of a modern and civilized state. and the Government of China signed an agreement that Mongolia is part of China. Also, the Soviet Union reached an agreement with the leaders of the Chinese Kuomintang to carry out the Red Revolution throughout China, including Mongolia. Thus, Mongolia became the object of inexplicable and poorly consistent agreements between the Soviet Union, the Chinese Government and the Kuomintang leaders.

1924 Mongolia declared the formation of the People's Republic and adopted a Constitution. After the death of Bogd Khan Jebdzundamba, it became necessary to choose a form of government for Mongolia. During the development of the new constitution, the first State Khural was convened. The Khural did not accept the first draft of this constitution, accusing the constitutional commission of copying the constitutions of capitalist countries. A new draft constitution was developed in Moscow, which was adopted. The capital Khuree was renamed Ulaanbaatar. The main significance of the Constitution is that it proclaimed the formation of the People's Republic. The prime minister of Mongolia at that time was Tserendorj.

In 1925, the USSR withdrew units of the Red Army after eliminating the remnants of the White Guard gangs in Mongolia. The note from the People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs of the USSR G.V. Chicherin dated January 24, 1925 stated: “The USSR Government believes that the presence of Soviet troops within the Mongolian People’s Republic is no longer necessary.”

At the end of May 1921, Baron Ungern with his “Wild Division” invaded Transbaikalia from Mongolia, hoping to stir up an anti-communist uprising. This was the “favorable moment” that Moscow had been waiting for. The Soviet government had a reason for the Soviet troops to march into Mongolia. In bloody battles on Soviet territory, Ungern's main forces were defeated, their remnants retreated to Mongolia.
On June 16, the Politburo of the Central Committee of the RCP (b) adopted a resolution on a military campaign in Mongolia. On July 7, troops of the RSFSR, Far Eastern Republic and a few “Red Mongolian” units, without encountering any resistance, entered Urga (Ulaanbaatar). Ungern eliminated Chinese influence in Mongolia by proclaiming its independence. In this way, he greatly helped Soviet Russia establish its influence in Mongolia.
At that moment, Ungern comes up with another incredible plan. In view of his defeat in Mongolia, he decided to move with the remnants of the “Wild Division” through the impassable Gobi Desert into Tibet in order to enter the service of the 13th Dalai Lama. But his soldiers opposed this plan. The Baron was tied up by his rebellious subordinates and thrown into the steppes, where he was picked up by Red Army scouts. After a short trial, on September 16, 1921, Ungern was shot in Novonikolaevsk (Novosibirsk).
The leaders of the Soviet campaign noted in reports to Moscow: “The main condition for a free, painless advance deep into Mongolia is the preservation of the friendly attitude of the native population, (which) suffered severely from the requisitions of the white bandits.”
On July 11, 1921, Mongolian revolutionaries proclaimed Mongolia a socialist state - the MPR (Mongolian People's Republic) and formed the People's Government. The new political reality was consolidated by the official request of the People's Government of Moscow not to withdraw Red Army units from Mongolia.
Many of the Mongolian revolutionaries studied in Russia or Mongolia in courses where Russian teachers worked. For example, Sukhbaatar graduated from machine gun courses in Urga, Bodo taught at the translator school at the Russian consulate. Choibolsan studied at the school at the Irkutsk Teachers' Institute for several years. Education in Russia was free or very cheap, and the travel and accommodation of Mongolian youth was paid for by the government of Bogdo-Gegen (formed in Mongolia in 1911).
In October - November 1921, a delegation of the MPR, which included Sukhbaatar, visited Moscow. The Mongolian delegation was received by V.I. Lenin. In a conversation with its representatives, the head of the Soviet government said that the only way for the Mongols was to fight for the complete independence of the country. For this struggle, he noted, the Mongols urgently need “a political and state organization.” On November 5, an agreement was signed to establish Soviet-Mongolian relations.
Soviet Russia defended its interests in Mongolia. Of course, this naturally created a threat to Chinese interests in Mongolia. States in the international arena seek to harm each other's interests; each of them, based on its own strategic considerations, pursues its own political line.
The Beijing government has repeatedly demanded the withdrawal of Red Army units from Mongolia. In August 1922, the second delegation of the RSFSR, headed by A.A., arrived in Beijing to establish Soviet-Chinese diplomatic relations. Ioffe. The Chinese side put forward the “Mongolian question” - the question of the presence of Soviet troops in Mongolia - as a pretext for delaying negotiations. The head of the Soviet delegation emphasized then that Soviet Russia “does not harbor” aggressive and selfish goals towards Mongolia. What could he say?
During the Soviet-Chinese negotiations in 1924 (in which the Soviet side was represented by the Soviet plenipotentiary in China L.M. Karakhan), difficulties also arose regarding the “Mongolian question.” The Beijing government advocated that the Sino-Soviet agreement would annul all Soviet-Mongolian treaties and agreements. Beijing was against the fact that in these documents the USSR and Mongolia acted as two states. The Chinese government insisted on the immediate withdrawal of Soviet troops from Mongolia. Beijing did not agree that the condition for their withdrawal would be the establishment of a Mongolian-Chinese border.
May 22 L.M. Karakhan handed over to the Chinese side amendments to the agreement, which the Soviet side was ready to accept. Soon, the Chinese Foreign Minister, for his part, made concessions; he agreed with the Soviet plenipotentiary's proposal not to annul a number of Soviet-Mongolian treaties. In the Soviet-Chinese agreement of May 31, 1924, it was decided to raise the issue of the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Mongolia at the Soviet-Chinese conference.
In June 1924, in connection with the death of the theocratic head of state Bogdo-Gegen, the Central Committee of the MPRP (Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party) and the People's Government of Mongolia spoke out in favor of the formation of a people's republic. In November 1924, the Great People's Khural declared Mongolia an independent people's republic. In fact, it turned into a Soviet sphere of influence.
In Mongolia, Moscow was able to implement the Comintern’s directive to provide support to the national revolutionary movement in the East. Here Moscow, contrary to the teachings of K. Marx, conducted a unique political experiment, starting the construction of socialism, bypassing the stage of capitalism. But most Mongolian revolutionaries dreamed not of this, but of the fact that Soviet Russia would support the Mongols in their quest for independence. And no more. In this regard, the death in 1923 of the young Sukhbaatar, the head of the conservative group in the Mongolian government and the main supporter of the national revolution, cannot but look suspicious.

Opolev Vitaly Grigorievich. Soviet military expedition to Mongolia on July 7, 1921. Establishment of official relations between the RSFSR and Mongolia on November 5, 1921. Soviet-Chinese agreement of May 31, 1924

MPR IN THE PRE-WAR YEARS. POLITICAL REPRESSION

1928 Supporters of the Comintern, the so-called “leftists,” came to power.

With relations with Kuomintang China deteriorating, the Soviet Union and the Comintern began working to establish a communist society in Mongolia. However, the leaders of Mongolia tried to follow an independent policy, not taking into account the opinion of Moscow, but the VII Congress of the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party removed them from power.

Prime Minister Choibalsan was a consistent supporter of Stalin. Taking advantage of the fact that the head of Mongolia, Peljidiin Genden, had lost the trust of Stalin (in particular, due to the fact that he refused to carry out mass repressions against Buddhist monks and force the introduction of a centralized economy), in 1936 Choibalsan contributed to his removal from power, shortly after which Genden was arrested and executed. Choibalsan, who was the Minister of Defense at that time, did not formally occupy the highest position in the state for several years, but already then he became a leader and carried out massive repressions, destroying not only his opponents in the party, but also former aristocrats, monks and many other “undesirable categories” " According to modern Mongolian historians, Choibalsan was perhaps the most despotic leader of Mongolia over the last century. At the same time, thanks to his actions, mass literacy was achieved in Mongolia (Choibalsan abolished the rather complex ancient Mongolian alphabet and introduced the Cyrillic alphabet), the country turned from an agricultural one into an agrarian-industrial one. Although the Choibolsan regime is criticized by contemporaries, they also note Choibolsan’s efforts to preserve the independence of Mongolia.

On September 10, 1937, mass persecution began, so this period remained in history as the “years of great repression.” During these years, tens of thousands of innocent people were shot and thrown into dungeons, hundreds of monasteries were destroyed, and many cultural monuments were destroyed. In his notebook, Prime Minister Choibalsan noted that 56,938 people were arrested. At that time, the total population of Mongolia was only 700 thousand people.

To date, 29 thousand repressed people have been rehabilitated, the state has issued compensation to the repressed and their relatives. Today, people whose archival materials were not found have not been rehabilitated.

1939 Fighting at Khalkhin Gol. In the mid-1930s, the Japanese created the puppet state of Manchukuo and began a dispute over the border with Mongolia. In May 1939 it escalated into an armed conflict. The Soviet Union sent its troops to help Mongolia. The Kwantung Army, having brought in additional forces, began a war that lasted until September. In September 1939, in Moscow, by agreement between the four countries of Mongolia, Manchukuo, the USSR and Japan, this war, which claimed 70 thousand lives, was officially ended. During the joint military operations of Soviet and Mongolian troops to defeat the Japanese militarists in the area of ​​the Khalkhin Gol River in 1939 and the Kwantung Army in the Manchurian Operation of 1945, Choibalsan was the commander-in-chief of the MNRA.

During the Great Patriotic War Soviet Union (1941-1945) Mongolia, to the best of its ability, provided assistance in its struggle against Nazi Germany. About half a million horses were transferred to the Soviet Union, and funds raised by the Mongolian people were used to create tank column And air squadron of fighter aircraft. Dozens of trains with warm clothes, food and various gifts were also sent to the front. At the final stage of the Second World War, the Mongolian People's Army, as part of a cavalry-mechanized group of Soviet-Mongolian troops, took part in the defeat of militaristic Japan.

1942 Mongolian State University was founded. Mongolia's first university was founded during World War II. Many outstanding professors came from the USSR and took part in its opening. Mongolia began to train its professional personnel, which served as a powerful impetus for the cultural and social development of the country. Mongolia also sent many students to study in the USSR. In the 20th century About 54 thousand Mongols were educated in the USSR, of which 16 thousand received higher education. They began to develop their country and turned it into a state of the 20th century.

1945 A plebiscite was held on the issue of Mongolia's independence. The Yalta Agreement recognized the status quo of Mongolia. The Chinese government decided that if the Mongols confirmed their independence, then China would agree to recognize it. In October 1945, a nationwide plebiscite was organized. On its basis, on January 6, 1946, China, and on November 27, 1946, the USSR recognized the independence of Mongolia. The struggle for independence, which lasted almost 40 years, successfully ended and Mongolia became a truly independent state.

PERIOD OF SOCIALISM

In 1947, a railway line was built connecting Naushki and Ulaanbaatar. Only in 1954, the construction of the trans-Mongolian railway with a length of more than 1,100 km, which connected the GCC and the People's Republic of China, was completed. The construction of the railway, carried out in accordance with the Agreement between the Government of the Mongolian People's Republic and the USSR on the establishment of the Soviet-Mongolian joint-stock company "Ulaanbaatar Railway" of 1949, had and continues to have important for the socio-economic development of Mongolia.

1956 The Cultural Revolution began. A campaign was launched to improve public health. It was necessary to introduce civilized life and modern culture into Mongolia. As a result of three cultural attacks, hotbeds of the spread of sexually transmitted diseases and illiteracy were destroyed, Mongolia joined the achievements of scientific and technological progress. Now there are many intelligent, modern people in the country.

1959 In general, the collectivization of pastoralists was completed. The development of agriculture and the development of virgin lands began. Based on the Soviet example, work began on “voluntary” collectivization. In 1959, the development of virgin lands marked the development of a new branch of agriculture, which resulted in one of the largest revolutions in the history of Mongolia.

1960 The population of Ulaanbaatar reached 100,000 people. People moved to Ulaanbaatar in large numbers. The urbanization of Mongolia began. This led to changes in the social sphere and industry. With the help of the USSR and then the CMEA member countries, the basis of the country's industry was created.

1961 Mongolia became a member of the UN. Since 1946, Mongolia has been trying to become a member of the UN, but the West and China prevented this for a long time. After Mongolia became a member of the UN and other international organizations, it was recognized throughout the world.

In the early 60s of the 20th century, relations between the USSR and China deteriorated and led to armed clashes on the border. In 1967, the Soviet Union sent troops into Mongolia, the total number of Soviet military personnel reached 75-80 thousand. China has concentrated troops on its northern borders.

During the Cold War, Mongolia was able to take loans from the USSR. Soviet Union during from 1972 to 1990. allocated 10 billion rubles to Mongolia. This money gave impetus to social and economic development. In 1972, construction began on a mining and processing plant for the production of copper and molybdenum concentrate in Erdenet, which began operations in 1980. This largest plant laid the foundation for major changes in the Mongolian economy. This plant is one of the top ten world leaders and has become a major factor in changing the structure of Mongolia's economy. By 2010, the Russian-Mongolian joint mining and processing plant Erdenet, whose injections into the Mongolian state budget account for half of it, will begin exporting copper with the “Made in Mongolia” label.

Zhugderdemidiin Gurragcha - the first cosmonaut of Mongolia, completed a space flight from March 22 to March 30, 1981 as a cosmonaut-researcher on spaceship"Soyuz-39" (crew commander V.A. Dzhanibekov) and the orbital research complex "Salyut-6" - the spacecraft "Soyuz T-4", where the crew of the main expedition worked, consisting of commander V.V. Kovalyonok and flight engineer V.P. Savinykh. The duration of stay in space was 7 days 20 hours 42 minutes 3 seconds.

In August 1984 It was as if thunder struck from a clear sky: the main dargah (leader) of Mongolia, Yu. Tsedenbal, was released from the posts of First Secretary of the MPRP Central Committee, Chairman of the Great People's Khural, and, as officially reported, “taking into account the state of his health and with his consent.” Many, perplexed, believed that this was apparently ordered by the Kremlin, which was counting on the rejuvenation of the leadership cadres in the fraternal countries. In 1984, Tsedenbal moved with his wife Anastasia Ivanovna Tsedenbal-Filatova and sons Vladislav and Zorig to Moscow. The new Mongolian authorities did not even allow him to spend a vacation in his homeland, which also contributed to the oblivion of the dargah. At the funeral in 1991 at the Ulan Bator cemetery “Altan Ulgiy” only family and close friends were present. Currently, Anastasia Ivanovna Tsedenbal-Filatova and her son Vladislav are no longer alive. By presidential decree, the former leader of Mongolia, Yumzhagiin Tsedenbal, was rehabilitated, all his awards and the rank of marshal were restored.

DEMOCRATIC TRANSFORMATIONS

In mid-1986, by decision of the Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the USSR M.S. Gorbachev began the withdrawal of Soviet troops from the territory of the MPR. At the same time, the repeated statements of the Mongolian government that Mongolia would not be able to ensure its sovereignty without the help of the USSR were not taken into account.

In 1989, the communist system was collapsing around the world. The Tiananmen movement arose in China, and Eastern European countries chose democracy and freedom. On December 10, 1989, the creation of the Democratic Union of Mongolia was announced. Soon they were created Democratic Party Mongolia, the Social Democratic Party of Mongolia, which demanded changes in the social structure of the country. In the summer, the first free elections were held in Mongolia. The first parliament of the Small Khural began to work on a permanent basis. P. Ochirbat was elected the first President of Mongolia. Thus, Mongolia became a free and independent state and moved towards an open society and a market economy.

The withdrawal of troops from Mongolia took 28 months. On February 4, 1989, a Soviet-Chinese agreement was signed to reduce the number of troops on the border. On May 15, 1989, the Soviet leadership announced the partial and then complete withdrawal of the 39th Army of the Trans-Baikal Military District from Mongolia. The army included two tank and three motorized rifle divisions - more than 50 thousand military personnel, 1816 tanks, 2531 armored vehicles, 1461 artillery systems, 190 aircraft and 130 helicopters. On September 25, 1992, the completion of the troop withdrawal was officially announced. The last Russian soldiers left Mongolia in December 1992.

During the withdrawal of troops, hundreds of apartment buildings, a huge number of barracks, clubs, officers' houses, hospitals (in each garrison), school buildings, kindergartens, etc., etc. The Mongols, accustomed to living in their yurts, could not and did not want to take advantage of the abandoned Soviet group buildings, and soon it was all smashed and looted.

In May 1991 The Great People's Khural made a decision on privatization. Livestock was completely privatized by 1993. At that time, the livestock population numbered 22 million heads, but now it is more than 39 million (at the end of 2007). To date, 80% of state property has been privatized.

January 13, 1992 Mongolia approved a democratic Constitution and declared the formation of a republic with parliamentary governance.

The last elections to the State Great Khural took place in 2004. Due to the fact that none of the political parties was able to take a majority of seats in parliament, a coalition government was formed.

MONGOLIA TODAY

In April 2007, the population of Ulaanbaatar exceeded 1,000,000 people.

July 1, 2008, after the latest parliamentary elections, police clashed with demonstrators in Ulaanbaatar, who set fire to the headquarters of the ruling party. According to Mongolian television, five people were killed and about 400 police officers were injured as a result of the unrest. Several journalists were also injured; a correspondent from Japan is in intensive care.

The clashes began after the opposition accused the ruling Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP) - the former Communist Party - of rigging the results of the parliamentary elections that took place on Sunday June 29, 2008. In the Russian press, these riots were called the “cashmere revolution.” Now the streets of Ulaanbaatar are calm. (July 2008).

On June 18, 2009, the leader of the opposition took office as president Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj, he became the 4th President of Mongolia.

The Mongol-Tatar yoke is the period of the capture of Rus' by the Mongol-Tatars in the 13th-15th centuries. The Mongol-Tatar yoke lasted for 243 years.

The truth about the Mongol-Tatar yoke

The Russian princes at that time were in a state of hostility, so they could not give a worthy rebuff to the invaders. Despite the fact that the Cumans came to the rescue, the Tatar-Mongol army quickly seized the advantage.

The first direct clash between the troops took place on the Kalka River, on May 31, 1223, and was lost quite quickly. Even then it became clear that our army would not be able to defeat the Tatar-Mongols, but the enemy’s onslaught was held back for quite some time.

In the winter of 1237, a targeted invasion of the main Tatar-Mongol troops into the territory of Rus' began. This time the enemy army was commanded by the grandson of Genghis Khan, Batu. The army of nomads managed to move quite quickly into the interior of the country, plundering the principalities in turn and killing everyone who tried to resist as they went along.

Main dates of the capture of Rus' by the Tatar-Mongols

• 1223 The Tatar-Mongols approached the border of Rus';
• May 31, 1223. First battle;
• Winter 1237. The beginning of a targeted invasion of Rus';
• 1237 Ryazan and Kolomna were captured. The Ryazan principality fell;
• March 4, 1238. Grand Duke Yuri Vsevolodovich was killed. The city of Vladimir is captured;
• Autumn 1239. Chernigov captured. The Principality of Chernigov fell;
• 1240 Kyiv is captured. The Principality of Kiev fell;
• 1241 The Galician-Volyn principality fell;
• 1480 Overthrow of the Mongol-Tatar yoke.

Reasons for the fall of Rus' under the onslaught of the Mongol-Tatars

• lack of a unified organization in the ranks of Russian soldiers;
• numerical superiority of the enemy;
• weakness of the command of the Russian army;
• poorly organized mutual assistance on the part of disparate princes;
• underestimation of enemy forces and numbers.

Features of the Mongol-Tatar yoke in Rus'

The establishment of the Mongol-Tatar yoke with new laws and orders began in Rus'.

Vladimir became the de facto center of political life; it was from there that the Tatar-Mongol khan exercised his control.

The essence of the management of the Tatar-Mongol yoke was that Khan awarded the label for reign at his own discretion and completely controlled all territories of the country. This increased the enmity between the princes.

Feudal fragmentation of territories was encouraged in every possible way, as this reduced the likelihood of a centralized rebellion.

Tribute was regularly collected from the population, the “Horde exit.” The collection of money was carried out by special officials - Baskaks, who showed extreme cruelty and did not shy away from kidnappings and murders.

Consequences of the Mongol-Tatar conquest

The consequences of the Mongol-Tatar yoke in Rus' were terrible.

• Many cities and villages were destroyed, people were killed;
• Agriculture, handicrafts and art fell into decline;
• Feudal fragmentation increased significantly;
• The population has decreased significantly;
• Rus' began to noticeably lag behind Europe in development.

The end of the Mongol-Tatar yoke

Complete liberation from the Mongol-Tatar yoke occurred only in 1480, when Grand Duke Ivan III refused to pay money to the horde and declared the independence of Rus'.