Formation of the Ottoman state.

Seljuks and the formation of the state of the Great Seljuks.

Turks in the era of the Great Migration of Peoples. Early Turkic Khaganates.

Lecture 4. The Turkic world on the way to empire.

1. The Turks during the era of the Great Migration of Peoples. Early Turkic Khaganates.

In the second half of the 1st millennium AD. in the Eurasian steppes and mountainous regions of Central Asia, the Turkic tribes occupied a predominant position. The history of the Turkic peoples is known mainly from the stories of their sedentary neighbors. The Turks in Turkestan began to develop their own historical literature only in the 16th century. Of all the Turkish states, only the history of the Ottoman Empire can be studied from Turkish sources (in the old Ottoman language).

The original use of the word “Turk” served as a designation for a tribe led by the Ashina clan, i.e. was an ethnonym. After the formation of the Turkic Khaganate, the word “Turk” became politicized. It also began to mean the state. The neighbors of the Kaganate - the Byzantines and Arabs - gave it a broader meaning. They extended this name to the nomadic peoples of the Eurasian steppes dependent on the Turks and related to them. Currently, the name “Turk” is an exclusively linguistic concept, without taking into account ethnography and even origin.

The Ashina clan is the creator of the first Turkic state. It arose in Altai in the 6th century. An extensive tribal union of 12 tribes was formed here, which adopted the self-name “Turk”. According to ancient legend, this name was the local name of the Altai Mountains.

The first historical person from the Ashin clan who headed the union was the Turkic leader Bumyn. In 551, after the victory over the Rourans (bordering northern China), Bumyn became the head of a multi-tribal state. It included not only the Turks, but also other nomadic tribes subject to them. The name Turkic Kaganate (Turk el, el among the Turks - a tribe and a state in the Middle Ages) was assigned to the nirm.

Bumyn adopted the Rouran title "Kagan" (later form - Khan). Among nomadic peoples, this title denoted the supreme ruler, under whom were other rulers of lower rank. This title was equivalent to the title of the Chinese emperor. This title was borne by the rulers of many nations - the Huns, Avars, Khazars, Bulgarians.

The Turkic Khaganate, under Bumyn’s closest successors, in a short period expanded its borders from Pacific Ocean to the Black Sea. In 576, during the period of greatest territorial expansion, the Turks reached the borders with Byzantium and Iran.

In terms of its internal structure, the Kaganate was a rigid hierarchy of tribes and clans. The primacy belonged to the 12-tribal union of the Turks. The second most important was the Tokuz-Oghuz tribal union led by the Uyghurs.

Supreme power belonged to representatives of the Kagan family of Ashina. The Kagan personified in one person the rudders of the leader, the supreme judge, and the high priest. The throne was passed on according to the seniority of brothers and nephews. Each of the princes of the blood received an inheritance to manage. They received the title "shad" (middle Persian Shah). This is the so-called appanage-ladder system of government.

The Turkic Khagans, having subjugated the ancient agricultural regions, themselves continued to roam the steppes. They interfered little in the political, economic and cultural life of the occupied territories. Their local rulers paid tribute to the Turks.

During 582-603. there was an internecine war, which led to the disintegration of the Kaganate into warring parts: the Eastern Turkic Kaganate in Mongolia; Western Turkic in Central Asia and Dzungaria. The history of their existence did not last long. Until the end of the 7th century. they were under the rule of the Chinese Tang Empire.

For a short period of time, the second Turkic Khaganate arose (687 - 745), at the origins of which again stood the Ashina clan, which united the Eastern Turks. The state of the Western Turks was also restored with the dominant position of the Turgesh tribe. Hence the name of the Kaganate - Turgesh.

After the collapse of the Second Turkic Khaganate, the Uyghur Khaganate with its capital in the city of Orubalyk on the river became an important political force in Central Asia. Orkhon. The Yaglakar clan was at the head of the state from 647. The Uyghurs professed Buddhism and Nestorianism. They were considered irreconcilable enemies of Islam. In 840, the Uighurs were defeated by the Yenisei Kyrgyz.

An important milestone in the history of the early Turkic states and peoples of Central and Central Asia was the conquest of the Arabs and the processes of Islamization that took place here. At the beginning of the 8th century. The entire Central Asian region was conquered by the Arabs. Starting from 713 - 714 The Arabs clashed with the Turks in battles near Samarkand. The Turgesh Kagan refused voluntary submission to the caliphate and supported the struggle of the Samarkand residents against the Arab presence. As a result, the Arabs in the 30s. VIII century dealt a decisive blow to the Turkic troops, and the Turgesh Kaganate collapsed.

With the annexation of Central Asia to the Caliphate, fractional internal borders were eliminated, and the different peoples of this region were united by one language (Arabic) and a common religion - Islam. From that time on, Central Asia became an organic part of the Islamic world.

2. Seljuks and the formation of the state of the Great Seljuks.

At the end of the 10th century. Tribes of Turks who converted to Islam began to play an active political role in Central Asia. From that time on, Islamized Turkic dynasties - the Karakhanids, Ghaznavids and Seljuks - began to rule the region.

The Karakhanids came from the top of the Karluk tribe. They were associated with the Ashina clan. After the defeat of the Uyghur Kaganate by the Yenisei Kyrgyz, the supreme authority among the Turkic tribes passed to them. In 840, the Karakhanid state was formed, which initially occupied the territory of Semirechye and Turkestan. In 960, the Karluks converted to Islam en masse. According to sources, 200 thousand tents immediately converted to Islam. The Karakhanid state existed until the beginning of the 13th century. His fall was hastened by the blows of the Seljuks.

The Ghaznavids are a Turkic Sunni dynasty that ruled in Central Asia from 977 to 1186. The founder of the state is the Turkic ghulam Alp - Tegin. After leaving service with the Samanids in Khorasan, he headed a semi-independent principality in Ghazn (Afghanistan). The Ghaznavid state reached its greatest power under Sultan Mahmud of Ghaznavi (998 – 1030). He significantly expanded the territory of his state, making successful campaigns in Central Asia and India. His campaigns played a major role in the spread of Sunni Islam in northern India. He also became famous for his extensive patronage of the arts, providing ample opportunities for famous scientists to work at court. The famous encyclopedist Abk Raikhan Biruni (973-1048) worked at his court. The great Persian poet Ferdowsi, author of the epic poem “Shah-nameh”. Mahmud's son Masud (1031 - 1041) underestimated the dangers of the Sedjukids. In 1040, Masud's huge army was defeated by the Seljuks near Merv. As a result, they lost Khorasan and Khorezm. By the middle of the 11th century. The Ghaznavids lost all Iranian possessions, and in 1186, after a long struggle for survival, after numerous territorial losses, the Ghaznavid state ceased to exist.

In the 9th – 10th centuries. Oguz nomads lived in the Syr Darya and in the Aral Sea region. The head of the Oguz tribal union with the Turkic title "Yabgu" led an alliance of 24 tribes. The clash of the Oguzes with the culture of Central Asia contributed to their Islamization. Among the Oghuz tribes, the Seljuks stood out. They bore this name after the semi-legendary leader Seljuk ibn Tugak.

The history of the rise of the Seljuks is connected with the names of two famous leaders, whom tradition considers the grandsons of Seljuk - Chagril Beg and Togrul Beg. Togrul Bey completely defeated the Ghaznavids and became the master of Khorasan. Then he made campaigns in Iraq and overthrew the Buwaihid dynasty. For this, he received the title “Sultan and King of the East and West” from the Baghdad Caliph. The policy of conquest was continued by his son Alp Arslan (1063 – 1072). In 1071 he won a famous victory over the Byzantines at Manzikert. This victory opened the way for the Seljuks to Asia Minor. By the end of the 11th century. The Seljuks captured Syria, Palestine, and in the east - the possessions of the Karakhanids.

As a result of the military campaigns of the Seljuks, a huge state was created, stretching from the Amu Darya and the borders of India to the Mediterranean. The reign of the sultans of the 11th – 12th centuries. It is commonly called the Great Seljuk dynasty.

The Seljuk power reached its peak during the reign of Sultan Malik Shah I (1072 – 1092). During his reign, the formation of state structures, which began under Togrul Bey, was completed. Unlike his predecessors, who bore Turkic names, Malik Shah took for himself a name composed of Arabic. Malik and Pers. Shah (both words mean king). The capital of the state was the city of Isfahan. His vizier was Nizam al-Mulk (1064 – 1092), the author of the Persian-language treatise “Siyasat-name” (“Book of Government”). It declared the Abbasid Caliphate to be the model of government. To realize this ideal, it was introduced new system training of officials and Sunni theologians.

During the reign of Malik Shah, the Seljuk state was relatively centralized. The Sultan, as head of state, was the supreme owner of all the land of the empire. His power was inherited by his son. The second figure in the state is the vizier, who led the central administrative apparatus and departments - divans. The provincial administration was clearly divided into military and civil.

A permanent army of Mamluk slaves was formed. They were brought from Central Asia, converted to Islam and trained in military affairs. Having become professional soldiers, they gained freedom and sometimes had successful careers.

Under the Seljuks, the iqta system, which arose under the Abbasids, became widespread. The Seljuk sultans allowed the iqta to be passed on by inheritance. As a result, large land holdings appeared that were not controlled by the central government.

In the Seljuk state, some elements of government were preserved, going back to tribal principles. 1). The empire was considered as family property, so management functions could belong to several brothers at the same time. 2). Institute of Atabeks (literally - father-guardian) or mentors and educators of young princes. The Atabeks had enormous influence on the young princes, sometimes even ruling for them.

In 1092, Nizam al-Mulk was killed, and a month later Malik Shah died. His death marked the beginning of the collapse of the Seljuk Empire. The sons of Malik Shah fought for power for a number of years. At the beginning of the 12th century. The Seljuk Sultanate finally split into several independent and semi-independent possessions: the Khorasan (East Seljuk), Iraqi (Western Seljuk) and Rum sultanates.

The Khorasan and Iraqi sultanates existed until the end of the 12th century. The Rum Sultanate was destroyed by the Mongols. During the XI – XIII centuries. The process of Turkization of Asia Minor was underway. From the 11th to the 12th centuries. From 200 to 300 thousand Seljuks moved here. The Turks' exploration of the Byzantine world took various forms. Firstly, the displacement of the Greeks from their lands, which led to the depopulation of the territories of the former Byzantine provinces. Secondly, the Islamization of the Greeks. The Mongol conquests led to a new wave of Turkization. Turkic tribes from East Turkestan, Central Asia and Iran poured into Asia Minor, especially Anatolia.

3. Formation of the Ottoman state.

In the second half of the XIII - first half of the XIV century. On the territory of Western and Central Anatolia (the Byzantine name for Asia Minor, which means “east” in Greek) about 20 Turkic beyliks or emirates arose.

The most powerful of the emirates that emerged was the Ottoman state in Bithynia (northwest Asia Minor). The state received this name after Osman, the ancestor of the emir who ruled there. Around 1300, the Ottoman beylik freed itself from subordination to the Seljuks. Its ruler Bey Osman (1288 - 1324) began to pursue an independent policy.

During the reign of Osman's son Orhan (1324 - 1359), the Ottoman Turks conquered almost all the Muslim emirates in Asia Minor. They began to conquer Byzantine possessions in Asia Minor. Initially, the capital of the Ottoman state was Brusa. By the middle of the 14th century. The Ottomans reached the Black Sea straits, but were unable to capture them. They transferred their aggressive activity to the Balkans, which belonged to Byzantium.

The Ottomans faced in the Balkans not a powerful state, but a weak Byzantium and several warring Balkan states. Turkish Sultan Murad I (1362 - 1389) captured Thrace, where he moved the capital, choosing Adrianople for it. Byzantium recognized its vassal dependence on the Sultan.

The decisive battle that determined the historical destinies of the peoples of the Balkans took place in 1389 on the Kosovo field. Sultan Bayazid I the Lightning (1389 - 1402) defeated the Serbs, and then captured the Bulgarian kingdom, Wallachia and Macedonia. Having captured Thessalonica, he reached the approaches to Constantinople. In 1394, he blocked the Byzantine capital from land, which lasted for 7 long years.

European countries tried to stop the Turkish conquest. Led by the Hungarian king Sigismund, the crusader army of knights in 1396 gave the Turkish army of Bayazid a general battle. As a result, near Nikopol on the Danube, brilliant knights from Hungary, the Czech Republic, Germany, France and Poland suffered a crushing defeat.

Constantinople was temporarily saved not by the West, but by the East. The troops of the Central Asian ruler Timur were approaching the power of Bayazid. On July 20 (28), 1402, the armies of two famous commanders Timur and Bayezid met at Angora (modern Ankara) in Asia Minor. The outcome of the battle was decided by the betrayal of the Asia Minor beys and the tactical miscalculations of Bayezid. His army suffered a crushing defeat, and the Sultan was captured. Unable to bear the humiliation, Bayazid died.

After a long struggle for power by the sons of Bayezid, Murad II (1421 - 1451) came to power. He made an attempt to capture Constantinople, which in 1422 repulsed his troops. Murad lifted the siege, but the Byzantine emperor recognized himself as a tributary of the Sultan.

Twice unsuccessfully, Western European monarchs tried to defend the Balkans and Constantinople. In 1444, the united troops under the command of the King of Poland and Hungary, Wladyslaw III Jagiellon, were defeated by Murad's army. In 1448, the same fate awaited the Hungarian commander Janos Hunyadi on the Kosovo field.

Constantinople was taken after long preparation by the young Sultan Mehmed II (1451 – 1481), who received the nickname “Fatih” - “Conqueror” for his numerous conquests. May 29, 1453 Constantinople fell. Last character Byzantine Empire Trebizond remained, whose basileus David the Great Komnenos (1458 - 1461) belonged to the descendants of the ancient imperial family of Komnenos. After the conquest of Trebizond, all the sultans, starting with Mehmed, included in their titles the name Kayser-i Rum, i.e. "Emperor of Romania"

After the capture of Constantinople, the Ottoman state became a world power, which for a long time played a major geopolitical role in the East and West of Eurasia.

The Ottomans completely subjugated the peoples of the Balkan Peninsula to their power and actually ousted European merchants and former leaders Genoa and Venice. Genoa lost its largest colony in Crimea (1475). From that time on, the Crimean Khanate became a vassal of the Ottoman Empire.

By the beginning of the 16th century. The Turks captured all of eastern Anatolia and began to control the most important international trade routes. During the reign of Selim I (1512 - 1520), the Ottoman Empire gained access to the Arab East, capturing northern Mesopotamia with large cities such as Mosul and Mardin.

The Ottomans contributed to the destruction of the hegemony of the Arab world in the Middle East. In 1516 – 1520 under the leadership of Selim I they crushed the Mamluk state of Egypt. As a result, Syria and the Hejaz with Mecca and Medina were annexed to the Ottoman state. In 1516, Selim I took the title Padishah-i-Islam (“Sultan of Islam”) and began to exercise caliphic prerogatives, such as organizing the Hajj. In 1517, Egypt became part of the Ottoman state.

After the victory over Mamluk Egypt, the Safavid power remained the only enemy in the East for the Ottomans. During the 16th century. Ottoman rulers sought to isolate the Safavid state by capturing the eastern coast of the Black Sea and part of the Caucasus territories (Eastern Armenia, Azerbaijan, Shirvan, Dagestan). In 1592, the Ottomans closed the Black Sea to all foreign ships.

From the beginning of the 16th century. The Ottoman Empire became involved in European politics. Its main rivals were the Portuguese and the Spaniards. But an alliance was emerging between the Ottoman Empire and Protestant countries, as well as with France, which fought against the Habsburgs.

The Ottoman threat haunted Europe both from sea and land: in the Mediterranean Sea and from the Balkans. After even crushing victories, when the Ottoman fleet was destroyed by the Holy League at the Battle of Lepanto (1571), the Turks captured Tunisia. As a result of these campaigns, the great vizier Mehmed Sokolu said to the Venetian ambassador: “You cut off our beard at Lepanto, but we cut off your hand in Tunisia; the beard will grow, but the hand will never.”

Until the middle of the 16th century. the Turks were really dangerous to the neighbors of their Balkan territories: Hungary, the Czech Republic, Austria. They besieged Vienna three times, but could not defeat it. Their undoubted success was control over Hungary. Subsequently, the Ottoman wars in Western Europe were local in nature and did not change the political map of this region.

4. Internal structure and the social structure of the Ottoman Empire.

The main socio-political and economic institutions of the Ottoman Empire took shape in the second half of the 15th century, under Mehmed II (1451 - 1481) and Bayezid II (1481 - 1512). The reign of Suleiman I Kanuni (“the Lawgiver”), or Suleiman the Magnificent (1520 – 1566), as he was called in Europe, is considered the “golden age” of the Ottoman Empire. By this time she had reached the apogee of her military power and maximum sizes territories.

Usually, during his lifetime, the sultan appointed his successor, who could be the son of any of the sultan's wives. This direct inheritance from father to son remained in the Ottoman Empire until 1617, when it became possible to transfer supreme power according to seniority. This order of inheritance was a constant threat to the lives of family members. The deadly dynastic struggle continued until early XIX V. Thus, Mehmed III (1595 - 1603), having come to power, executed 19 of his brothers and ordered 7 pregnant wives of Ottoman princes to be drowned in the Bosphorus.

In the 16th century In the Sultan's family, it was customary, according to Seljuk custom, to send sons who had reached 12 years of age to remote provinces. Here they organized management according to the capital model. Mehmed III started another practice. He kept his sons isolated in a special room in the palace. These conditions were not conducive to preparing the rulers of a vast empire.

The harem played a significant role at the Sultan's court. The sultana-mother reigned in it. She discussed state affairs with the Grand Vizier and the Chief Mufti.

The Grand Vizier was appointed by the Sultan. He conducted administrative, financial and military affairs on behalf of the Sultan. The office of the Grand Vizier was called Bab-i Ali (“Great Gate”), in French La Sublime Porte (“Brilliant Gate”). Russian diplomats have the “Brilliant Porte”.

Sheikh-ul-Islam is the highest Muslim cleric to whom the Sultan entrusted his spiritual authority. He had the right to issue a “fatwa”, i.e. special conclusion on the compliance of the government act with the Koran and Sharia. The imperial council, the diwan-i humayun, functioned as an advisory body.

The Ottoman Empire had administrative division into eyalets (provinces), which were headed by governors - beylerbeys (from 1590 - wali). Beyelbeys had the title of vizier and the title of pasha, so the eyalets were often called pashaliks. The governor was appointed from Istanbul and reported to the Grand Vizier. In each province there were Janissary corps, whose commanders (yup) were also appointed from Stanbul.

Smaller administrative units were called "sanjaks" led by military leaders - sanjakbeys. Under Murad III, the empire consisted of 21 eyalets and about 2,500 sanjaks. Sanjaks were divided into counties (kaza), counties into volosts (nakhiye).

The basis of the socio-political structure of the Ottoman Empire was self-governing communities (taifa), which developed in all spheres of professional activity, in the city and in the countryside. The head of the community was a sheikh. Cities had neither self-government nor municipal structure. They logged in public administration. The actual head of the city was the qadi, to whom the sheikhs of the trade and craft corporations reported. The Qadi regulated and set production and sales standards for all goods.

All subjects of the Sultan were divided into two categories: military (askeri) - professional warriors, Muslim clergy, government officials; and tax-payers (raya) - peasants, artisans, merchants of all religions. The first category was exempt from taxation. The second category - they paid taxes, according to the Arab-Muslim tradition.

In all parts of the empire there was no serfdom. Peasants could freely change their place of residence if they had no arrears. The status of elite groups in society was supported solely by tradition and was not enshrined in law.

In the Ottoman Empire XV - XVI centuries. there was no dominant nationality. The Ottoman state and society were cosmopolitan in nature. The Turks as an ethnic community constituted a minority and did not stand out among the other peoples of the empire. Turkish language as a medium interethnic communication hasn't formed yet. Arabic was the language of Scripture, science and legal proceedings. Slavic served as the spoken language of the court and the Janissary army. Greek was spoken by the people of Stanbul and residents of former Byzantine cities.

The ruling elite, army, and administration were multinational. Most viziers and other administrators came from Greeks, Slavs or Albanians. Slavic-speaking Muslims formed the backbone of the Ottoman army. Thus, the unity of Ottoman society as an integral system was supported exclusively by Islam.

Millets are religious and political autonomies of the heterodox population. By the 16th century There were three millets: rum (Orthodox); Yahudi (Jews); Ermeni (Armenian-Gregorians, etc.). All millets recognized the supreme power of the Sultan and paid the poll tax. At the same time, they enjoyed complete freedom of worship and independence in resolving their community affairs. At the head of the millet was the millet bashi. He was approved by the sultan and was a member of the imperial council.

However, in fact, the Sultan's non-Muslim subjects were not entitled to full rights. They paid more taxes, were not accepted into military service or held administrative positions, and their evidence in court was not taken into account.

The timar system developed under a special form of land ownership, according to which all land and water resources were considered the property of the “ummah,” that is, all Muslims. There was very little private property or mulk. The main type of land ownership was state.

Civil servants and military personnel received timars - inalienable land holdings, initially with the right of transfer by inheritance. It was not the land itself that was complained about, but the right to a portion of the income from it.

Timars differed in the amount of income. Once every 30-40 years, a census of all land holders was carried out in the empire. This census compiled a cadastre (defter) for each sanjak. Defter and Kanun-name strictly fixed tax rates, above which it was forbidden to take payments from peasants.

In the 16th century The distribution of timars acquired a strictly centralized order. Sipahi warriors were maintained on the basis of the distribution of timars. From the end of the 15th century. this army began to be supplanted by slave-state warriors (kapykulu), who were supported at public expense. Warrior slaves were recruited in Slavic regions at the age of 9-14 years. They were converted to Islam and specially prepared for military and civil service. Such infantry in the Ottoman army were called Janissaries (from the Turkish yeni cheri - “new army”). They lived according to the rules of the Bektashi dervish order. Over time, they became a closed military corporation - the Sultan's guard.

Literature

Vasiliev L.S. History of Eastern Religions: 7th ed. corr. and additional – M., 2004.

Gasparyan Yu.A., Oreshkova S.F., Petrosyan Yu.A. Essays on the history of Turkey. – M., 1983.

Eremeev D.E. At the junction of Asia and Europe: Essays on Turkey and the Turks. – M.: Nauka, 1980.

Konovalova I.G. Medieval East: textbook. manual for universities/ RAS, GUGN, Scientific and Educational Center for History. – M.: AST: Astrel, 2008.

Pamuk E. Istanbul is a city of memories. – M.: Olga Morozova Publishing House, 2006.

Smirnov V.E. Mamluk institutions as an element of the military-administrative and political structure of Ottoman Egypt // Odysseus. – M., 2004.

Made inevitable the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, which for centuries dominated large territories that fell victim to its insatiable military expansion. Forced to join the Central Powers, such as Germany, Austria-Hungary and Bulgaria, it suffered the bitterness of defeat, unable to further establish itself as the world's leading empire.

Founder of the Ottoman Empire

At the end of the 13th century, Osman I Ghazi inherited from his father Bey Ertogrul power over the countless Turkish hordes inhabiting Phrygia. Having declared the independence of this relatively small territory and taking the title of Sultan, he managed to conquer a significant part of Asia Minor and thus found a powerful empire, named Ottoman in his honor. She was destined to play important role in world history.

Already in the middle, the Turkish army landed on the coast of Europe and began its centuries-long expansion, which made this state one of the greatest in the world in the 15th-16th centuries. However, the beginning of the collapse of the Ottoman Empire began already in the 17th century, when the Turkish army, which had never known defeat before and was considered invincible, suffered a crushing blow near the walls of the Austrian capital.

First defeat from the Europeans

In 1683, hordes of Ottomans approached Vienna, besieging the city. Its inhabitants, having heard enough about the wild and ruthless morals of these barbarians, showed miracles of heroism, protecting themselves and their relatives from certain death. As historical documents testify, the success of the defenders was greatly facilitated by the fact that among the command of the garrison there were many prominent military leaders of those years who were able to competently and promptly take all the necessary defensive measures.

When the king of Poland arrived to help the besieged, the fate of the attackers was decided. They fled, leaving rich booty for the Christians. This victory, which began the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, had, first of all, psychological significance for the peoples of Europe. She dispelled the myth of the invincibility of the all-powerful Porte, as Europeans used to call the Ottoman Empire.

Beginning of territorial losses

This defeat, as well as a number of subsequent failures, became the reason for the Peace of Karlowitz concluded in January 1699. According to this document, the Porte lost the previously controlled territories of Hungary, Transylvania and Timisoara. Its borders have shifted to the south by a considerable distance. This was already quite a significant blow to its imperial integrity.

Troubles in the 18th century

If the first half of the next, XVIII century, was marked by certain military successes of the Ottoman Empire, which allowed it, albeit with the temporary loss of Derbent, to maintain access to the Black and Sea of ​​Azov, then the second half of the century brought a number of failures, which also predetermined the future collapse of the Ottoman Empire.

The defeat of Empress Catherine II with the Ottoman Sultan forced the latter to sign a peace treaty in July 1774, according to which Russia received the lands stretching between the Dnieper and the Southern Bug. The next year brings a new misfortune - the Porta loses Bukovina, which was transferred to Austria.

The 18th century ended in complete disaster for the Ottomans. Final defeat in the Russian-Turkish war led to the conclusion of a very unfavorable and humiliating Peace of Jassy, ​​according to which the entire Northern Black Sea region, including the Crimean Peninsula, went to Russia.

The signature on the document certifying that from now on and forever Crimea is ours was personally put by Prince Potemkin. In addition, the Ottoman Empire was forced to transfer to Russia the lands between the Southern Bug and the Dniester, as well as come to terms with the loss of its dominant positions in the Caucasus and the Balkans.

The beginning of a new century and new troubles

The beginning of the collapse of the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century was predetermined by its next defeat in the Russian-Turkish war of 1806-1812. The result of this was the signing in Bucharest of another agreement, essentially disastrous for the Porte. On the Russian side, the chief commissioner was Mikhail Illarionovich Kutuzov, and on the Turkish side, Ahmed Pasha. The entire area from the Dniester to the Prut went to Russia and began to be called first the Bessarabia region, then the Bessarabia province, and now it is Moldova.

The attempt by the Turks in 1828 to take revenge from Russia for past defeats turned into a new defeat and another peace treaty signed the following year in Andreapol, which deprived Russia of its already rather scanty territory of the Danube Delta. To add insult to injury, Greece declared its independence at the same time.

Short-term success, again replaced by defeats

The only time luck smiled on the Ottomans was during the Crimean War of 1853-1856, which was mediocrely lost by Nicholas I. His successor on the Russian throne, Emperor Alexander II, was forced to cede a significant part of Bessarabia to the Porte, but the new war that followed in 1877-1878 returned everything to its place.

The collapse of the Ottoman Empire continued. Taking advantage of the favorable moment, Romania, Serbia and Montenegro separated from it in the same year. All three states declared their independence. The 18th century ended for the Ottomans with the unification of the northern part of Bulgaria and the territory of the empire that belonged to them, called Southern Rumelia.

War with the Balkan Union

The final collapse of the Ottoman Empire and the formation of the Turkish Republic date back to the 20th century. This was preceded by a series of events, which began in 1908 when Bulgaria declared its independence and thereby ended the five hundred year Turkish yoke. This was followed by the war of 1912-1913, declared on the Porte by the Balkan Union. It included Bulgaria, Greece, Serbia and Montenegro. The goal of these states was to seize territories that belonged to the Ottomans at that time.

Despite the fact that the Turks fielded two powerful armies, Southern and Northern, the war, which ended in the victory of the Balkan Union, led to the signing of another treaty in London, which this time deprived the Ottoman Empire of almost the entire Balkan Peninsula, leaving it only Istanbul and a small part of Thrace. The bulk of the occupied territories were received by Greece and Serbia, which almost doubled their area. In those days, a new state was formed - Albania.

Proclamation of the Turkish Republic

You can simply imagine how the collapse of the Ottoman Empire occurred in subsequent years by following the course of the First World War. Wanting to regain at least part of the territories lost over recent centuries, the Porte took part in hostilities, but, to its misfortune, on the side of the losing powers - Germany, Austria-Hungary and Bulgaria. This was the final blow that crushed the once mighty empire that terrified the whole world. The victory over Greece in 1922 did not save it either. The process of decay was already irreversible.

First world war for the Porte ended with the signing in 1920, according to which the victorious allies shamelessly stole the last territories remaining under Turkish control. All this led to its complete collapse and the proclamation of the Turkish Republic on October 29, 1923. This act marked the end of more than six hundred years of history of the Ottoman Empire.

Most researchers see the reasons for the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, first of all, in the backwardness of its economy, the extremely low level of industry, and the lack of a sufficient number of highways and other means of communication. In a country at the level of medieval feudalism, almost the entire population remained illiterate. By many indicators, the empire was much less developed than other states of that period.

Objective evidence of the collapse of the empire

Speaking about what factors indicated the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, we should first of all mention the political processes that took place in it at the beginning of the 20th century and were practically impossible in earlier periods. This is the so-called Young Turk Revolution, which occurred in 1908, during which members of the Union and Progress organization seized power in the country. They overthrew the Sultan and introduced a constitution.

The revolutionaries did not last long in power, giving way to supporters of the deposed Sultan. The subsequent period was filled with bloodshed caused by clashes between warring factions and changes in rulers. All this irrefutably indicated that powerful centralized power was a thing of the past, and the collapse of the Ottoman Empire began.

To briefly summarize, it should be said that Turkey has completed the path that from time immemorial was prepared for all states that left their mark in history. This is their origin, rapid flourishing and finally decline, which often led to their complete disappearance. The Ottoman Empire did not disappear completely without a trace, having become today, although a restless, but by no means a dominant member of the world community.

The Ottoman Empire, officially called the Great Ottoman State, lasted 623 years.

It was a multinational state, whose rulers respected their traditions, but did not deny others. It was for this advantageous reason that many neighboring countries allied with them.

In Russian-language sources the state was called Turkish or Tursky, and in Europe it was called Porta.

History of the Ottoman Empire

The Great Ottoman State emerged in 1299 and lasted until 1922. The first sultan of the state was Osman, after whom the empire was named.

The Ottoman army was regularly replenished with Kurds, Arabs, Turkmen and other nations. Anyone could come and become a member of the Ottoman army only by uttering an Islamic formula.

The lands obtained as a result of the seizure were allocated for agriculture. On such plots there was a small house and a garden. The owner of this plot, which was called "timar", was obliged to appear to the Sultan at the first call and fulfill his demands. He had to appear to him on his own horse and fully armed.

The horsemen did not pay any taxes, since they paid with “their blood.”

Due to the active expansion of borders, they needed not only cavalry troops, but also infantry, which is why they created one. Osman's son Orhan also continued to expand the territory. Thanks to him, the Ottomans found themselves in Europe.

There they took little boys aged about 7 years old to study with the Christian peoples, whom they taught, and they converted to Islam. Such citizens, who grew up in such conditions from childhood, were excellent warriors and their spirit was invincible.

Gradually they formed their own fleet, which included warriors of different nationalities, they even took in pirates who willingly converted to Islam and fought active battles.

What was the name of the capital of the Ottoman Empire?

Emperor Mehmed II, having captured Constantinople, made it his capital and called it Istanbul.

However, not all battles went smoothly. At the end of the 17th century there was a series of failures. So, for example, Russian Empire took the Crimea, as well as the Black Sea coast, from the Ottomans, after which the state began to suffer more and more defeats.

In the 19th century, the country began to weaken rapidly, the treasury began to empty, agriculture was poorly conducted and inactive. When defeated during the First World War, a truce was signed, Sultan Mehmed V was abolished and went to Malta, and subsequently to Italy, where he lived until 1926. The empire fell apart.

The territory of the empire and its capital

The territory expanded very actively, especially during the reign of Osman and Orhan, his son. Osman began to expand his borders after he came to Byzantium.

Territory of the Ottoman Empire (click to enlarge)

Initially, it was located on the territory of modern Turkey. Then the Ottomans reached Europe, where they expanded their borders and captured Constantinople, which was later named Istanbul and became the capital of their state.

Serbia, as well as many other countries, were also annexed to the territories. The Ottomans annexed Greece, some islands, as well as Albania and Herzegovina. This state was one of the most powerful for many years.

Rise of the Ottoman Empire

The reign of Sultan Suleiman I is considered the heyday. During this period, many campaigns were made against Western countries, thanks to which the borders of the Empire were significantly expanded.

Due to the active positive period of his reign, the Sultan was nicknamed Suleiman the Magnificent. He actively expanded borders not only in Muslim countries, but also by annexing European countries. He had his own viziers, who were obliged to inform the Sultan about what was happening.

Suleiman I ruled for a long time. His idea throughout the years of his reign was the idea of ​​uniting the lands, just like his father Selim. He also planned to unite the peoples of the East and West. That is why he maintained his position quite directly and did not deviate from his goal.

Although active expansion of borders also occurred in the 18th century, when most of the battles were won, however, the most positive period is still considered era of the reign of Suleiman I - 1520-1566.

Rulers of the Ottoman Empire in chronological order

Rulers of the Ottoman Empire (click to enlarge)

The Ottoman dynasty ruled for a long time. Among the list of rulers, the most prominent were Osman, who formed the Empire, his son Orhan, and Suleiman the Magnificent, although each sultan left his mark on the history of the Ottoman State.

Initially, the Ottoman Turks, fleeing the Mongols, partially migrated towards the West, where they were in the service of Jalal ud-Din.

Next, part of the remaining Turks was sent to the possession of the padishah Sultan Kay-Kubad I. Sultan Bayazid I, during the battle of Ankara, was captured and then died. Timur divided the Empire into parts. After this, Murad II began its restoration.

During the reign of Mehmed Fatih, the Fatih Law was adopted, which implied the murder of all those who interfere with the rule, even siblings. The law did not last very long and was not supported by everyone.

Sultan Abduh Habib II was overthrown in 1909, after which the Ottoman Empire ceased to be a monarchical state. When Abdullah Habib II Mehmed V began to rule, under his rule the Empire began to actively fall apart.

Mehmed VI, who ruled briefly until 1922, until the end of the Empire, left the state, which finally collapsed in the 20th century, but the prerequisites for this were already in the 19th century.

Last Sultan of the Ottoman Empire

The last sultan was Mehmed VI, who was 36th on the throne. Before his reign, the state was experiencing a significant crisis, so it was extremely difficult to restore the Empire.

Ottoman Sultan Mehmed VI Vahideddin (1861-1926)

He became ruler at the age of 57. After the beginning of his reign, Mehmed VI dissolved parliament, but the First World War greatly undermined the activities of the Empire and the Sultan had to leave the country.

Sultanas of the Ottoman Empire - their role in government

Women in the Ottoman Empire did not have the right to rule the state. This rule existed in all Islamic states. However, there is a period in the history of the state when women actively participated in government.

It is believed that the female sultanate emerged as a result of the end of the period of campaigns. Also, the formation of a female sultanate is largely connected with the abolition of the law “On Succession to the Throne”.

The first representative was Hurrem Sultan. She was the wife of Suleiman I. Her title was Haseki Sultan, which means "Most Beloved Wife." She was very educated, knew how to conduct business negotiations and respond to various messages.

She was an advisor to her husband. And since he spent most of his time in battles, she took on the main responsibilities of the government.

Fall of the Ottoman Empire

As a result of numerous failed battles during the reign of Abdullah Habib II Mehmed V, the Ottoman state began to actively collapse. Why the state collapsed is a complex question.

However, we can say that the main moment in its collapse was precisely the First World War, which put an end to the Great Ottoman State.

Descendants of the Ottoman Empire in modern times

In modern times, the state is represented only by its descendants, determined by family tree. One of them is Ertogrul Osman, who was born in 1912. He could have become the next sultan of his empire if it had not collapsed.

Ertogrul Osman became the last grandson of Abdul Hamid II. He speaks several languages ​​fluently and has a good education.

His family moved to Vienna when he was about 12 years old. There he received his education. Ertogul is married for the second time. His first wife died without giving him any children. His second wife was Zainep Tarzi, who is the niece of Ammanullah, the former king of Afghanistan.

The Ottoman state was one of the great ones. Among its rulers there are several of the most outstanding, thanks to whom its borders significantly expanded in a fairly short period of time.

However, the First World War, as well as many lost defeats, caused serious damage to this empire, as a result of which it disintegrated.

Currently, the history of the state can be seen in the film “The Secret Organization of the Ottoman Empire,” where summary, but many moments from history are described in sufficient detail.

History of the Ottoman Empire

History of the Ottoman Empire dates back more than one hundred years. The Ottoman Empire existed from 1299 to 1923.

Rise of an Empire

Expansion and fall of the Ottoman Empire (1300–1923)

Osman (reigned 1288–1326), son and heir of Ertogrul, in the fight against the powerless Byzantium annexed region after region to his possessions, but, despite his growing power, recognized his dependence on Lycaonia. In 1299, after the death of Alaeddin, he accepted the title "Sultan" and refused to recognize the power of his heirs. After his name, the Turks began to be called Ottoman Turks or Ottomans. Their power over Asia Minor spread and strengthened, and the sultans of Konya were unable to prevent this.

Since that time, they have developed and rapidly increased, at least quantitatively, own literature, although very little independent. They take care of maintaining trade, agriculture and industry in the conquered areas and create a well-organized army. A powerful state is developing, military, but not hostile to culture; in theory it is absolutist, but in reality the commanders to whom the Sultan gave different areas to control often turned out to be independent and reluctant to recognize the supreme power of the Sultan. Often the Greek cities of Asia Minor voluntarily placed themselves under the protection of the powerful Osman.

Osman's son and heir Orhan I (1326–59) continued his father's policies. He considered it his calling to unite all the faithful under his rule, although in reality his conquests were directed more to the west, to countries inhabited by Greeks, than to the east, to countries inhabited by Muslims. He very skillfully took advantage of internal discord in Byzantium. More than once the disputing parties turned to him as an arbitrator. In 1330 he conquered Nicaea, the most important of the Byzantine fortresses on Asian soil. Following this, Nicomedia and the entire northwestern part of Asia Minor to the Black, Marmara and Aegean Seas fell into the power of the Turks.

Finally, in 1356, a Turkish army under the command of Suleiman, son of Orhan, landed on the European shore of the Dardanelles and captured Gallipoli and its environs.

Bâb-ı Âlî, Haute Porte

In Orhan’s activities in the internal management of the state, his constant adviser was his elder brother Aladdin, who (the only example in the history of Turkey) voluntarily renounced his rights to the throne and accepted the post of grand vizier, established especially for him, but preserved even after him. To facilitate trade, coinage was regulated. Orhan minted a silver coin - akche in his own name and with a verse from the Koran. He built himself a luxurious palace in the newly conquered Bursa (1326), from whose high gates the Ottoman government received the name “High Porte” (literal translation of the Ottoman Bab-ı Âlî - “high gate”), often transferred to the Ottoman state itself.

In 1328, Orhan gave his domains new, largely centralized administration. They were divided into 3 provinces (pashalik), which were divided into districts, sanjaks. Civil administration was connected to the military and subordinated to it. Orhan laid the foundation for the Janissary army, which was recruited from Christian children (at first 1000 people; later this number increased significantly). Despite a significant amount of tolerance towards Christians, whose religion was not persecuted (even though taxes were taken from Christians), Christians converted to Islam in droves.

Conquests in Europe before the capture of Constantinople (1306–1453)

• 1352 - capture of the Dardanelles.
• 1354 - capture of Gallipoli.
• From 1358 to Kosovo field

After the capture of Gallipoli, the Turks fortified themselves on the European coast of the Aegean Sea, the Dardanelles and the Sea of ​​Marmara. Suleiman died in 1358, and Orhan was succeeded by his second son, Murad (1359-1389), who, although he did not forget about Asia Minor and conquered Angora in it, moved the center of gravity of his activities to Europe. Having conquered Thrace, he moved his capital to Adrianople in 1365. Byzantine Empire was reduced to one to Constantinople with its immediate surroundings, but continued to resist conquest for almost another hundred years.

The conquest of Thrace brought the Turks into close contact with Serbia and Bulgaria. Both states went through a period of feudal fragmentation and could not consolidate. In a few years, they both lost a significant part of their territory, were obliged to pay tribute and became dependent on the Sultan. However, there were periods when these states managed, taking advantage of the moment, to partially restore their positions.

Upon the accession of successive sultans, starting with Bayazet, it became customary to kill close relatives to avoid family rivalry over the throne; This custom was observed, although not always, but often. When the relatives of the new Sultan did not pose the slightest danger due to their mental development or for other reasons, they were left alive, but their harem was made up of slaves made infertile through surgery.

The Ottomans clashed with the Serbian rulers and won victories at Chernomen (1371) and Savra (1385).

Battle of Kosovo Field

In 1389, the Serbian prince Lazar began a new war with the Ottomans. On Kosovo Field on June 28, 1389, his army of 80,000 people. clashed with Murad's army of 300,000 people. The Serbian army was destroyed, the prince was killed; Murad also fell in the battle. Formally, Serbia still retained its independence, but it paid tribute and pledged to supply auxiliary troops.

Murad Murad

One of the Serbs who took part in the battle (that is, from Prince Lazar's side) was the Serbian prince Miloš Obilic. He understood that to win this great battle The Serbs' chances are slim, and he decided to sacrifice his life. He came up with a cunning operation.

During the battle, Milos snuck into Murad's tent, pretending to be a defector. He approached Murad as if to convey some secret and stabbed him. Murad was dying, but managed to call for help. Consequently, Milos was killed by the Sultan's guards. (Miloš Obilic kills Sultan Murad) From this moment on, the Serbian and Turkish versions of what happened began to differ. According to the Serbian version, having learned about the murder of their ruler, the Turkish army succumbed to panic and began to scatter, and only the taking of control of the troops by Murad's son Bayezid I saved the Turkish army from defeat. According to the Turkish version, the murder of the Sultan only angered the Turkish soldiers. However, the most realistic option is the version that the main part of the army learned about the death of the Sultan after the battle.

Early 15th century

Murad's son Bayazet (1389-1402) married Lazar's daughter and thereby acquired the formal right to intervene in the resolution of dynastic issues in Serbia (when Stefan, Lazar's son, died without heirs). In 1393, Bayazet took Tarnovo (he strangled the Bulgarian king Shishman, whose son saved himself from death by accepting Islam), conquered all of Bulgaria, obliged Wallachia with tribute, conquered Macedonia and Thessaly and penetrated into Greece. In Asia Minor, his possessions expanded far to the east beyond the Kyzyl-Irmak (Galis).

In 1396, near Nicopolis, he defeated a Christian army gathered for a crusade by the king Sigismund of Hungary.

The invasion of Timur at the head of the Turkic hordes into the Asian possessions of Bayazet forced him to lift the siege of Constantinople and personally rush towards Timur with significant forces. IN Battle of Ankara in 1402 he was completely defeated and captured, where a year later (1403) he died. A significant Serbian auxiliary detachment (40,000 people) also died in this battle.

The captivity and then death of Bayazet threatened the state with disintegration into parts. In Adrianople, Bayazet's son Suleiman (1402-1410) proclaimed himself sultan, seizing power over the Turkish possessions on the Balkan Peninsula, in Brousse - Isa, in the eastern part of Asia Minor - Mehmed I. Timur received ambassadors from all three applicants and promised his support to all three, obviously wanting to weaken the Ottomans, but he did not find it possible to continue its conquest and went to the East.

Mehmed soon won, killed Isa (1403) and reigned over all of Asia Minor. In 1413, after the death of Suleiman (1410) and the defeat and death of his brother Musa, who succeeded him, Mehmed restored his power over the Balkan Peninsula. His reign was relatively peaceful. He tried to maintain peaceful relations with his Christian neighbors, Byzantium, Serbia, Wallachia and Hungary, and concluded treaties with them. Contemporaries characterize him as a fair, meek, peace-loving and educated ruler. More than once, however, he had to deal with internal uprisings, which he dealt with very energetically.

The reign of his son, Murad II (1421-1451), began with similar uprisings. The brothers of the latter, in order to avoid death, managed to flee to Constantinople in advance, where they met with a friendly reception. Murad immediately moved to Constantinople, but managed to gather only a 20,000-strong army and was therefore defeated. However, with the help of bribes, he managed to capture and strangle his brothers soon after. The siege of Constantinople had to be lifted, and Murad turned his attention to the northern part of the Balkan Peninsula, and later to the south. In the north, a thunderstorm gathered against him from the Transylvanian governor Matthias Hunyadi, who won victories over him at Hermannstadt (1442) and Nis (1443), but due to the significant superiority of the Ottoman forces, he was completely defeated on the Kosovo field. Murad took possession of Thessalonica (previously conquered three times by the Turks and again lost to them), Corinth, Patras and a large part of Albania.

His strong opponent was the Albanian hostage Iskander Beg (or Skanderbeg), who was brought up at the Ottoman court and was Murad’s favorite, who converted to Islam and contributed to its spread in Albania. Then he wanted to make a new attack on Constantinople, which was not dangerous for him militarily, but was very valuable due to its geographical position. Death prevented him from carrying out this plan, carried out by his son Mehmed II (1451-81).

Capture of Constantinople

Mehmed II enters Constantinople with his army

The pretext for the war was that Konstantin Paleolog, the Byzantine emperor, did not want to hand over to Mehmed his relative Orkhan (son of Suleiman, grandson of Bayazet), whom he was saving to stir up troubles, as a possible contender for the Ottoman throne. The Byzantine emperor had only a small strip of land along the shores of the Bosphorus; the number of his troops did not exceed 6,000, and the nature of the administration of the empire made it even weaker. There were already quite a few Turks living in the city itself; The Byzantine government, starting in 1396, had to allow the construction of Muslim mosques next to Orthodox churches. Only extremely convenient geographical location Constantinople and strong fortifications made it possible to resist.

Mehmed II sent an army of 150,000 people against the city. and a fleet of 420 small sailing ships blocking the entrance to the Golden Horn. The armament of the Greeks and their military art were somewhat higher than the Turkish, but the Ottomans also managed to arm themselves quite well. Murad II also established several factories for casting cannons and making gunpowder, which were run by Hungarian and other Christian engineers who converted to Islam for the benefits of renegadeism. Many of the Turkish guns made a lot of noise, but did no real harm to the enemy; some of them exploded and killed a significant number of Turkish soldiers. Mehmed began preliminary siege work in the fall of 1452, and in April 1453 he began a proper siege. The Byzantine government turned to Christian powers for help; the pope hastened to respond with a promise to preach a crusade against the Turks, if only Byzantium agreed to unite the churches; the Byzantine government indignantly rejected this proposal. Of the other powers, Genoa alone sent a small squadron with 6,000 men. under the command of Giustiniani. The squadron bravely broke through the Turkish blockade and landed troops on the shores of Constantinople, which doubled the forces of the besieged. The siege continued for two months. A significant part of the population lost their heads and, instead of joining the ranks of the fighters, prayed in churches; the army, both Greek and Genoese, resisted extremely courageously. At its head was the emperor Konstantin Paleolog, who fought with the courage of despair and died in the skirmish. On May 29, the Ottomans opened the city.

Conquests

The era of power of the Ottoman Empire lasted more than 150 years. In 1459, all of Serbia was conquered (except Belgrade, taken in 1521) and turned into an Ottoman pashalyk. Conquered in 1460 Duchy of Athens and after him almost all of Greece, with the exception of some coastal cities, which remained in the power of Venice. In 1462, the islands of Lesbos and Wallachia were conquered, and in 1463, Bosnia.

The conquest of Greece brought the Turks into conflict with Venice, which entered into a coalition with Naples, the Pope and Karaman (an independent Muslim khanate in Asia Minor, ruled by Khan Uzun Hasan).

The war lasted 16 years in the Morea, the Archipelago and Asia Minor simultaneously (1463-79) and ended in victory for the Ottoman state. According to the Peace of Constantinople of 1479, Venice ceded to the Ottomans several cities in the Morea, the island of Lemnos and other islands of the Archipelago (Negropont was captured by the Turks back in 1470); Karaman Khanate recognized the power of the Sultan. After the death of Skanderbeg (1467), the Turks captured Albania, then Herzegovina. In 1475, they waged war with the Crimean Khan Mengli Giray and forced him to recognize himself as dependent on the Sultan. This victory was of great military importance for the Turks, since the Crimean Tatars supplied them with auxiliary troops, at times numbering 100 thousand people; but later it became fatal for the Turks, as it pitted them against Russia and Poland. In 1476, the Ottomans devastated Moldavia and made it a vassal state.

This ended the period of conquest for some time. The Ottomans owned the entire Balkan Peninsula to the Danube and Sava, almost all the islands of the Archipelago and Asia Minor to Trebizond and almost to the Euphrates; beyond the Danube, Wallachia and Moldavia were also very dependent on them. Everywhere was ruled either directly by Ottoman officials or by local rulers who were approved by the Porte and were completely subordinate to it.

Reign of Bayazet II

None of the previous sultans did as much to expand the borders of the Ottoman Empire as Mehmed II, who remained in history with the nickname “Conqueror”. He was succeeded by his son Bayazet II (1481-1512) in the midst of unrest. The younger brother Cem, relying on the great vizier Mogamet-Karamaniya and taking advantage of Bayazet's absence in Constantinople at the time of his father's death, proclaimed himself sultan.

Bayazet gathered the remaining loyal troops; The hostile armies met at Angora. Victory remained with the older brother; Cem fled to Rhodes, from there to Europe and after long wanderings found himself in the hands of Pope Alexander VI, who offered Bayazet to poison his brother for 300,000 ducats. Bayazet accepted the offer, paid the money, and Cem was poisoned (1495). Bayazet's reign was marked by several more uprisings of his sons, which ended (except for the last one) successfully for the father; Bayazet took the rebels and executed them. However, Turkish historians characterize Bayazet as a peace-loving and meek man, a patron of art and literature.

Indeed, there was a certain halt in the Ottoman conquests, but more due to failures than to the peacefulness of the government. The Bosnian and Serbian pashas repeatedly raided Dalmatia, Styria, Carinthia and Carniola and subjected them to cruel devastation; Several attempts were made to take Belgrade, but without success. The death of Matthew Corvinus (1490) caused anarchy in Hungary and seemed to favor Ottoman designs against that state.

The long war, waged with some interruptions, ended, however, not particularly favorably for the Turks. According to the peace concluded in 1503, Hungary defended all its possessions and although it had to recognize the Ottoman Empire’s right to tribute from Moldavia and Wallachia, it did not renounce the sovereign rights to these two states (more in theory than in reality). In Greece, Navarino (Pylos), Modon and Coron (1503) were conquered.

The first relations of the Ottoman state with Russia date back to the time of Bayazet II: in 1495, ambassadors of Grand Duke Ivan III appeared in Constantinople to ensure unhindered trade in the Ottoman Empire for Russian merchants. Other European powers also entered into friendly relations with Bayazet, especially Naples, Venice, Florence, Milan and the Pope, seeking his friendship; Bayazet skillfully balanced between everyone.

At the same time, the Ottoman Empire waged war with Venice over the Mediterranean, and defeated it in 1505.

His main attention was directed to the East. He started a war with Persia, but did not have time to end it; in 1510, his youngest son Selim rebelled against him at the head of the Janissaries, defeated him and overthrew him from the throne. Soon Bayazet died, most likely from poison; Selim's other relatives were also exterminated.

Reign of Selim I

The war in Asia continued under Selim I (1512–20). In addition to the usual desire of the Ottomans for conquest, this war also had a religious reason: the Turks were Sunnis, Selim, as an extreme zealot of Sunnism, passionately hated the Shia Persians, and on his orders, up to 40,000 Shiites living on Ottoman territory were destroyed. The war was fought with varying success, but the final victory, although far from complete, was on the side of the Turks. In the peace of 1515, Persia ceded to the Ottoman Empire the regions of Diyarbakir and Mosul, which lie along the upper reaches of the Tigris.

The Egyptian Sultan of Kansu-Gavri sent an embassy to Selim with a peace offer. Selim ordered to kill all members of the embassy. Kansu stepped forward to meet him; the battle took place in the Dolbec Valley. Thanks to his artillery, Selim achieved a complete victory; The Mamelukes fled, Kansu died during the escape. Damascus opened the gates to the winner; after him, all of Syria submitted to the Sultan, and Mecca and Medina came under his protection (1516). The new Egyptian Sultan Tuman Bey, after several defeats, had to cede Cairo to the Turkish vanguard; but at night he entered the city and destroyed the Turks. Selim, not being able to take Cairo without a stubborn fight, invited its inhabitants to surrender with the promise of their favors; the inhabitants surrendered - and Selim carried out a terrible massacre in the city. Tuman Bey was also beheaded when, during the retreat, he was defeated and captured (1517).

Selim reproached him for not wanting to obey him, the Commander of the Faithful, and developed a theory, bold in the mouth of a Muslim, according to which he, as the ruler of Constantinople, is the heir of the Eastern Roman Empire and, therefore, has the right to all the lands ever included in its composition.

Realizing the impossibility of ruling Egypt solely through his pashas, ​​who would inevitably eventually become independent, Selim retained next to them 24 Mameluke leaders, who were considered subordinate to the pasha, but enjoyed a certain independence and could complain about the pasha to Constantinople. Selim was one of the most cruel Ottoman sultans; besides his father and brothers, besides countless captives, he executed seven of his great viziers during the eight years of his reign. At the same time, he patronized literature and himself left a significant number of Turkish and Arabic poems. In the memory of the Turks he remained with the nickname Yavuz (unyielding, stern).

Reign of Suleiman I

Tughra Suleiman the Magnificent (1520)

Selim's son Suleiman I (1520-66), nicknamed the Magnificent or Great by Christian historians, was the direct opposite of his father. He was not cruel and understood the political value of mercy and formal justice; He began his reign by releasing several hundred Egyptian captives from noble families who were kept in chains by Selim. European silk merchants, robbed in Ottoman territory at the beginning of his reign, received generous monetary rewards from him. More than his predecessors, he loved the splendor with which his palace in Constantinople amazed Europeans. Although he did not renounce conquests, he did not like war, only on rare occasions personally becoming the head of an army. He especially highly valued the art of diplomacy, which brought him important victories. Immediately after ascending the throne, he began peace negotiations with Venice and concluded an agreement with it in 1521, recognizing the Venetians' right to trade in Turkish territory and promising them protection of their safety; Both sides pledged to hand over fugitive criminals to each other. Since then, although Venice did not keep a permanent envoy in Constantinople, embassies were sent from Venice to Constantinople and back more or less regularly. In 1521, Ottoman troops took Belgrade. In 1522, Suleiman landed a large army on Rhodes. Six month siege The main stronghold of the Knights of St. John ended with its capitulation, after which the Turks began to conquer Tripoli and Algeria in North Africa.

Battle of Mohacs (1526)

In 1527, Ottoman troops under the command of Suleiman I invaded Austria and Hungary. At first, the Turks achieved very significant successes: in the eastern part of Hungary they managed to create a puppet state that became a vassal of the Ottoman Empire, they captured Buda, and ravaged vast territories in Austria. In 1529, the Sultan moved his army to Vienna, intending to capture the Austrian capital, but he failed. Started on September 27 siege of Vienna, the Turks outnumbered the besieged by at least 7 times. But the weather was against the Turks - on the way to Vienna, due to bad weather, they lost many guns and pack animals, and illnesses began in their camp. But the Austrians did not waste time - they strengthened the city walls in advance, and Archduke Ferdinand I of Austria brought German and Spanish mercenaries to the city (his older brother Charles V of Habsburg was both the Holy Roman Emperor and the King of Spain). Then the Turks relied on blowing up the walls of Vienna, but the besieged constantly made forays and destroyed all Turkish trenches and underground passages. Due to the approaching winter, disease and mass desertion, the Turks had to leave just 17 days after the start of the siege, on October 14.

Union with France

The closest neighbor of the Ottoman state and its most dangerous enemy was Austria, and entering into a serious fight with it without enlisting anyone’s support was risky. France was the natural ally of the Ottomans in this struggle. The first relations between the Ottoman Empire and France began in 1483; Since then, both states have exchanged embassies several times, but this did not lead to practical results.

In 1517, King Francis I of France proposed to the German Emperor and Ferdinand the Catholic an alliance against the Turks with the aim of expelling them from Europe and dividing their possessions, but this alliance did not take place: the interests of these European powers were too opposed to each other. On the contrary, France and the Ottoman Empire did not come into contact with each other anywhere and they had no immediate reasons for hostility. Therefore France, which once took such an ardent part in crusades, decided to take a bold step: a real military alliance with a Muslim power against a Christian power. The final impetus was given by the unfortunate Battle of Pavia for the French, during which the king was captured. Regent Louise of Savoy sent an embassy to Constantinople in February 1525, but it was beaten by the Turks in Bosnia in spite of [source not specified 466 days] the Sultan's wishes. Not embarrassed by this event, Francis I sent an envoy from captivity to the Sultan with a proposal for an alliance; the Sultan was supposed to attack Hungary, and Francis promised war with Spain. At the same time, Charles V made similar proposals to the Ottoman Sultan, but the Sultan preferred an alliance with France.

Soon after, Francis sent a request to Constantinople to allow the restoration of at least one catholic church, but received a decisive refusal from the Sultan in the name of the principles of Islam, along with a promise of all kinds of protection for Christians and protection of their safety (1528).

Military successes

According to the truce of 1547, the entire southern part of Hungary up to and including Ofen became an Ottoman province, divided into 12 sanjaks; the northern one came into the hands of Austria, but with the obligation to pay the Sultan 50,000 ducats of tribute annually (in the German text of the treaty, the tribute was called an honorary gift - Ehrengeschenk). The supreme rights of the Ottoman Empire over Wallachia, Moldavia and Transylvania were confirmed by the peace of 1569. This peace could only take place because Austria spent huge sums of money bribing Turkish commissioners. The Ottoman war with Venice ended in 1540 with the transfer to the power of the Ottoman Empire of the last possessions of Venice in Greece and the Aegean Sea. In the new war with Persia, the Ottomans occupied Baghdad in 1536, and Georgia in 1553. With this they reached the apogee of their political power. The Ottoman fleet sailed freely throughout the Mediterranean Sea to Gibraltar and often plundered the Portuguese colonies in the Indian Ocean.

In 1535 or 1536, a new treaty “on peace, friendship and trade” was concluded between the Ottoman Empire and France; France now had a permanent envoy in Constantinople and a consul in Alexandria. Subjects of the Sultan in France and subjects of the king in the territory of the Ottoman state were guaranteed the right to freely travel throughout the country, buy, sell and exchange goods under the protection of local authorities at the beginning of equality. Litigations between the French in the Ottoman Empire were to be dealt with by French consuls or envoys; in case of litigation between a Turk and a Frenchman, the French were provided with protection by their consul. During the time of Suleiman, some changes took place in the order of internal administration. Previously, the Sultan was almost always personally present in the diwan (ministerial council): Suleiman rarely appeared in it, thus providing more space for his viziers. Previously, the positions of vizier (minister) and grand vizier, and also governor of the pashalyk were usually given to people more or less experienced in administration or military affairs; under Suleiman, the harem began to play a noticeable role in these appointments, as well as cash gifts given by applicants for high positions. This was caused by the government's need for money, but soon became a rule of law and was the main reason for the decline of the Porte. Government extravagance has reached unprecedented proportions; True, government revenues also increased significantly due to the successful collection of tribute, but despite this, the Sultan often had to resort to damaging coins.

Reign of Selim II

The son and heir of Suleiman the Magnificent, Selim II (1566-74), ascended the throne without having to beat his brothers, since his father took care of this, wanting to ensure the throne for him for the sake of his beloved last wife. Selim reigned prosperously and left his son a state that not only did not decrease territorially, but even increased; for this, in many respects, he owed the mind and energy of the vizier Mehmed Sokoll. Sokollu completed the conquest of Arabia, which had previously been only loosely dependent on the Porte.

Battle of Lepanto (1571)

He demanded the cession of the island of Cyprus from Venice, which led to a war between the Ottoman Empire and Venice (1570-1573); the Ottomans suffered a heavy naval defeat at Lepanto (1571), but despite this, at the end of the war they captured Cyprus and were able to hold it; in addition, they obliged Venice to pay 300 thousand ducats of war indemnity and pay tribute for the possession of the island of Zante in the amount of 1,500 ducats. In 1574, the Ottomans took possession of Tunisia, which had previously belonged to the Spaniards; Algeria and Tripoli had previously recognized their dependence on the Ottomans. Sokollu conceived two great things: connecting the Don and Volga with a canal, which, in his opinion, was supposed to strengthen the power of the Ottoman Empire in Crimea and again subordinate it to Khanate of Astrakhan, already conquered by Moscow, - and digging Isthmus of Suez. However, this was beyond the power of the Ottoman government.

Under Selim II took place Ottoman expedition to Aceh, which led to the establishment of long-term ties between the Ottoman Empire and this remote Malay Sultanate.

Reign of Murad III and Mehmed III

During the reign of Murad III (1574-1595), the Ottoman Empire emerged victorious from a stubborn war with Persia, capturing all of Western Iran and the Caucasus. Murad's son Mehmed III (1595-1603) executed 19 brothers upon his accession to the throne. However, he was not a cruel ruler, and even went down in history under the nickname Fair. Under him, the state was largely controlled by his mother through 12 grand viziers, often replacing each other.

Increased deterioration of coins and increased taxes more than once led to uprisings in various parts of the state. Mehmed's reign was filled with war with Austria, which began under Murad in 1593 and ended only in 1606, already under Ahmed I (1603-17). It ended with the Peace of Sitvatorok in 1606, marking a turn in the mutual relations between the Ottoman Empire and Europe. No new tribute was imposed on Austria; on the contrary, she freed herself from the previous tribute for Hungary by paying a one-time indemnity of 200,000 florins. In Transylvania, Stefan Bocskai, hostile to Austria, and his male offspring were recognized as the ruler. Moldova, repeatedly trying to get out from vassalage, managed to defend during border conflicts with Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Habsburgs. From this time on, the territory of the Ottoman state was no longer expanded except for a short period. The war with Persia of 1603-12 had sad consequences for the Ottoman Empire, in which the Turks suffered several serious defeats and had to cede the Eastern Georgian lands, Eastern Armenia, Shirvan, Karabakh, Azerbaijan with Tabriz and some other areas.

Decline of the Empire (1614–1757)

The last years of the reign of Ahmed I were filled with rebellions that continued under his heirs. His brother Mustafa I (1617-1618), a protege and favorite of the Janissaries, to whom he made gifts of millions from state funds, after three months of control, was overthrown by the mufti's fatwa as insane, and Ahmed's son Osman II (1618-1622) ascended the throne. After the unsuccessful campaign of the Janissaries against the Cossacks, he made an attempt to destroy this violent army, which every year became less and less useful for military purposes and more and more dangerous for the state order - and for this he was killed by the Janissaries. Mustafa I was re-enthroned and again dethroned a few months later, and a few years later he died, probably from poisoning.

Osman's younger brother, Murad IV (1623-1640), seemed intent on restoring the former greatness of the Ottoman Empire. He was a cruel and greedy tyrant, reminiscent of Selim, but at the same time a capable administrator and an energetic warrior. According to estimates, the accuracy of which cannot be verified, up to 25,000 people were executed under him. Often he executed rich people solely in order to confiscate their property. He again conquered Tabriz and Baghdad in the war with the Persians (1623-1639); he also managed to defeat the Venetians and conclude a profitable peace with them. He pacified the dangerous Druze uprising (1623-1637); but the uprising of the Crimean Tatars almost completely freed them from Ottoman power. The devastation of the Black Sea coast carried out by the Cossacks remained unpunished for them.

In internal administration, Murad sought to introduce some order and some economy in finances; however, all his attempts turned out to be impracticable.

Under his brother and heir Ibrahim (1640-1648), under whom the harem was again in charge of state affairs, all the acquisitions of his predecessor were lost. The Sultan himself was overthrown and strangled by the Janissaries, who elevated his seven-year-old son Mehmed IV (1648-1687) to the throne. The true rulers of the state during the first time of the latter’s reign were the Janissaries; all government positions were filled by their proteges, management was in complete disarray, finances reached an extreme decline. Despite this, the Ottoman fleet managed to inflict a serious naval defeat on Venice and break the blockade of the Dardanelles, which had been held with varying success since 1654.

Russo-Turkish War 1686–1700

Battle of Vienna (1683)

In 1656, the post of grand vizier was seized by an energetic man, Mehmet Köprülü, who managed to strengthen the discipline of the army and inflict several defeats on the enemies. Austria was supposed to conclude a peace in Vasvara that was not particularly beneficial for it in 1664; in 1669 the Turks conquered Crete, and in 1672, by peace in Buchach, they received Podolia and even part of Ukraine from the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. This peace caused the indignation of the people and the Sejm, and the war began again. Russia also took part in it; but on the side of the Ottomans stood a significant part of the Cossacks, led by Doroshenko. During the war, the Grand Vizier Ahmet Pasha Köprülü died after ruling the country for 15 years (1661–76). The war, which had been going on with varying degrees of success, ended Bakhchisarai truce, concluded in 1681 for 20 years, at the beginning of the status quo; Western Ukraine, which was a real desert after the war, and Podolia remained in the hands of the Turks. The Ottomans easily agreed to peace, since they had a war with Austria on their agenda, which was undertaken by Ahmet Pasha's successor, Kara-Mustafa Köprülü. The Ottomans managed to penetrate to Vienna and besiege it (from July 24 to September 12, 1683), but the siege had to be lifted when the Polish king Jan Sobieski entered into an alliance with Austria, hastened to the aid of Vienna and won near it brilliant victory over the Ottoman army. In Belgrade, Kara-Mustafa was met by envoys from the Sultan, who had orders to take him to Constantinople the head of an incapable commander, which was done. In 1684, Venice, and later Russia, also joined the coalition of Austria and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth against the Ottoman Empire.

During the war, in which the Ottomans had to defend rather than attack on their own territory, in 1687 the Grand Vizier Suleiman Pasha was defeated at Mohács. The defeat of the Ottoman forces irritated the Janissaries, who remained in Constantinople, rioting and plundering. Under the threat of an uprising, Mehmed IV sent them the head of Suleiman, but this did not save him: the Janissaries overthrew him with the help of a fatwa from the mufti and forcibly elevated his brother, Suleiman II (1687-91), a man devoted to drunkenness and completely incapable of governing, to the throne. The war continued under him and under his brothers, Ahmed II (1691–95) and Mustafa II (1695–1703). The Venetians took possession of the Morea; the Austrians took Belgrade (soon again falling to the Ottomans) and all the significant fortresses of Hungary, Slavonia, and Transylvania; The Poles occupied a significant part of Moldova.

In 1699 the war was over Treaty of Karlowitz, which was the first according to which the Ottoman Empire did not receive either tribute or temporary indemnity. Its value significantly exceeded the value World of Sitvatorok. It became clear to everyone that the military power of the Ottomans was not at all great and that internal turmoil was shaking their state more and more.

In the empire itself, the Peace of Karlowitz aroused awareness among the more educated part of the population of the need for some reforms. Köprülü, a family that gave the state during the 2nd half of the 17th and early 18th centuries, already had this consciousness. 5 great viziers who belonged to the most remarkable statesmen of the Ottoman Empire. Already in 1690 he led. vizier Köprülü Mustafa issued the Nizami-ı Cedid (Ottoman: Nizam-ı Cedid - “New Order”), which established the maximum standards for poll taxes levied on Christians; but this law had no practical application. After the Peace of Karlowitz, Christians in Serbia and Banat were forgiven their taxes for a year; The highest government in Constantinople began from time to time to take care of protecting Christians from extortions and other oppression. Insufficient to reconcile Christians with Turkish oppression, these measures irritated the Janissaries and Turks.

Participation in the Northern War

Ambassadors at Topkapi Palace

Mustafa's brother and heir, Ahmed III (1703-1730), elevated to the throne by the Janissary uprising, showed unexpected courage and independence. He arrested and hastily executed many officers of the Janissary army and removed and exiled the Grand Vizier (Sadr-Azam) Ahmed Pasha, whom they had installed. The new Grand Vizier Damad Hassan Pasha pacified uprisings in different parts of the state, patronized foreign merchants, and founded schools. He was soon overthrown as a result of intrigue emanating from the harem, and viziers began to change with amazing speed; some remained in power for no more than two weeks.

The Ottoman Empire did not even take advantage of the difficulties experienced by Russia during the Northern War. Only in 1709 did she accept Charles XII, who had fled from Poltava, and, under the influence of his convictions, began a war with Russia. By this time, in the Ottoman ruling circles there already existed a party that dreamed not of a war with Russia, but of an alliance with it against Austria; At the head of this party was the leader. vizier Numan Keprilu, and his fall, which was the work of Charles XII, served as a signal for war.

The position of Peter I, surrounded on the Prut by an army of 200,000 Turks and Tatars, was extremely dangerous. Peter's death was inevitable, but the Grand Vizier Baltaji-Mehmed succumbed to bribery and released Peter for the relatively unimportant concession of Azov (1711). The war party overthrew Baltaci-Mehmed and exiled him to Lemnos, but Russia diplomatically achieved the removal of Charles XII from the Ottoman Empire, for which it had to resort to force.

In 1714-18 the Ottomans waged war with Venice and in 1716-18 with Austria. By Peace of Passarowitz(1718) The Ottoman Empire received back the Morea, but gave Austria Belgrade with a significant part of Serbia, Banat, and part of Wallachia. In 1722, taking advantage of the end of the dynasty and the subsequent unrest in Persia, the Ottomans began religious war against the Shiites, with which they hoped to reward themselves for their losses in Europe. Several defeats in this war and the Persian invasion of Ottoman territory caused a new uprising in Constantinople: Ahmed was deposed, and his nephew, the son of Mustafa II, Mahmud I, was elevated to the throne.

Reign of Mahmud I

Under Mahmud I (1730-54), who was an exception among the Ottoman sultans with his gentleness and humanity (he did not kill the deposed sultan and his sons and generally avoided executions), the war with Persia continued, without definite results. The war with Austria ended with the Peace of Belgrade (1739), according to which the Turks received Serbia with Belgrade and Orsova. Russia acted more successfully against the Ottomans, but the conclusion of peace by the Austrians forced the Russians to make concessions; Of its conquests, Russia retained only Azov, but with the obligation to demolish the fortifications.

During the reign of Mahmud, the first Turkish printing house was founded by Ibrahim Basmaji. The Mufti, after some hesitation, gave a fatwa, with which, in the name of the interests of enlightenment, he blessed the undertaking, and the Sultan Gatti Sherif authorized it. Only the printing of the Koran and holy books was prohibited. In the first period of the printing house’s existence, 15 works were printed there (Arabic and Persian dictionaries, several books on the history of the Ottoman state and general geography, military art, political economy, etc.). After the death of Ibrahim Basmaji, the printing house was closed, a new one arose only in 1784.

Mahmud I, who died of natural causes, was succeeded by his brother Osman III (1754-57), whose reign was peaceful and who died in the same way as his brother.

Attempts at reform (1757–1839)

Osman was succeeded by Mustafa III (1757–74), son of Ahmed III. Upon his accession to the throne, he firmly expressed his intention to change the policy of the Ottoman Empire and restore the shine of its weapons. He conceived quite extensive reforms (by the way, digging channels through Isthmus of Suez and through Asia Minor), openly did not sympathize with slavery and set free a significant number of slaves.

General discontent, which had not previously been news in the Ottoman Empire, was especially strengthened by two incidents: by someone unknown, a caravan of the faithful returning from Mecca was robbed and destroyed, and a Turkish admiral's ship was captured by a detachment of sea robbers of Greek nationality. All this testified to the extreme weakness of state power.

To regulate finances, Mustafa III began by saving in his own palace, but at the same time he allowed the coins to be damaged. Under the patronage of Mustafa, the first public library, several schools and hospitals were opened in Constantinople. He very willingly concluded a treaty with Prussia in 1761, which granted Prussian merchant ships free navigation in Ottoman waters; Prussian subjects in the Ottoman Empire were subject to the jurisdiction of their consuls. Russia and Austria offered Mustafa 100,000 ducats for the abolition of the rights given to Prussia, but to no avail: Mustafa wanted to bring his state as close as possible to European civilization.

Attempts at reform did not go any further. In 1768, the Sultan had to declare war on Russia, which lasted 6 years and ended Peace of Kuchuk-Kainardzhiy 1774. Peace was already concluded under Mustafa's brother and heir, Abdul Hamid I (1774-1789).

Reign of Abdul Hamid I

The Empire at this time was almost everywhere in a state of ferment. The Greeks, excited by Orlov, were worried, but, left by the Russians without help, they were quickly and easily pacified and cruelly punished. Ahmed Pasha of Baghdad declared himself independent; Taher, supported by Arab nomads, accepted the title of Sheikh of Galilee and Acre; Egypt under the rule of Muhammad Ali did not even think of paying tribute; Northern Albania, which was ruled by Mahmud, Pasha of Scutari, was in a state of complete rebellion; Ali, Pasha of Yanin, clearly sought to establish an independent kingdom.

The entire reign of Adbul Hamid was occupied with pacifying these uprisings, which could not be achieved due to the lack of money and disciplined troops from the Ottoman government. This has been joined by a new war with Russia and Austria(1787-91), again unsuccessful for the Ottomans. It's over Peace of Jassy with Russia (1792), according to which Russia finally acquired Crimea and the space between the Bug and the Dniester, and the Treaty of Sistov with Austria (1791). The latter was comparatively favorable for the Ottoman Empire, since its main enemy, Joseph II, had died and Leopold II was directing all his attention to France. Austria returned to the Ottomans most of the acquisitions it made during this war. Peace was already concluded under Abdul Hamid's nephew, Selim III (1789-1807). In addition to territorial losses, the war brought one significant change to the life of the Ottoman state: before it began (1785), the empire concluded its first national debt, first domestic, guaranteed by some government revenues.

Reign of Selim III

Sultan Selim III was the first to recognize the deep crisis of the Ottoman Empire and began to reform the military and government organization of the country. By energetic measures the government cleared the Aegean Sea of ​​pirates; it patronized trade and public education. His main attention was paid to the army. The Janissaries proved themselves almost completely useless in war, while at the same time keeping the country in a state of anarchy during periods of peace. The Sultan intended to replace their formations with a European-style army, but since it was obvious that it was impossible to immediately replace the entire old system, the reformers paid some attention to improving the position of traditional formations. Among the Sultan's other reforms were measures to strengthen the combat capability of the artillery and navy. The government was concerned with translating the best foreign works on tactics and fortification into Ottoman; invited French officers to teaching positions at the artillery and naval schools; under the first of them, it founded a library of foreign works on military sciences. Workshops for casting guns have been improved; military ships of a new type were ordered from France. These were all preliminary measures.

Sultan Selim III

The Sultan clearly wanted to move on to reorganizing the internal structure of the army; he established a new form for her and began to introduce stricter discipline. He hasn’t touched the Janissaries yet. But then, firstly, the uprising of the Viddin Pasha, Pasvan-Oglu (1797), who clearly neglected the orders coming from the government, stood in his way, and secondly - Egyptian expedition Napoleon.

Kuchuk-Hussein moved against Pasvan-Oglu and waged a real war with him, which did not have a definite result. The government finally entered into negotiations with the rebellious governor and recognized his lifelong rights to rule the Viddinsky pashalyk, in fact on the basis of almost complete independence.

In 1798, General Bonaparte made his famous attack on Egypt, then on Syria. Great Britain took the side of the Ottoman Empire, destroying the French fleet in Battle of Aboukir. The expedition did not have any serious results for the Ottomans. Egypt remained formally in the power of the Ottoman Empire, in fact - in the power of the Mamluks.

The war with the French had barely ended (1801) when the uprising of the Janissaries began in Belgrade, dissatisfied with the reforms in the army. Their oppression sparked a popular movement in Serbia (1804) under the leadership of Karageorge. The government initially supported the movement, but it soon took the form of a real popular uprising, and the Ottoman Empire was forced to take military action (see below). Battle of Ivankovac). The matter was complicated by the war started by Russia (1806-1812). Reforms had to be postponed again: the Grand Vizier and other senior officials and military personnel were at the theater of military operations.

Coup attempt

Only the kaymakam (assistant to the grand vizier) and deputy ministers remained in Constantinople. Sheikh-ul-Islam took advantage of this moment to plot against the Sultan. The ulema and janissaries took part in the conspiracy, among whom rumors were spread about the Sultan’s intention to distribute them among the regiments of the standing army. The Kaimaks also joined the conspiracy. On the appointed day, a detachment of Janissaries unexpectedly attacked the garrison of the standing army stationed in Constantinople and carried out a massacre among them. Another part of the Janissaries surrounded Selim's palace and demanded that he execute people they hated. Selim had the courage to refuse. He was arrested and taken into custody. Abdul Hamid's son, Mustafa IV (1807-1808), was proclaimed Sultan. The massacre in the city continued for two days. Sheikh-ul-Islam and Kaymakam ruled on behalf of the powerless Mustafa. But Selim had his followers.

During the coup of Kabakçı Mustafa (Turkish: Kabakçı Mustafa isyanı), Mustafa Bayraktar(Alemdar Mustafa Pasha - Pasha of the Bulgarian city of Ruschuk) and his followers began negotiations regarding the return of Sultan Selim III to the throne. Finally, with an army of sixteen thousand, Mustafa Bayraktar went to Istanbul, having previously sent there Haji Ali Aga, who killed Kabakci Mustafa (July 19, 1808). Mustafa Bayraktar and his army, having destroyed a fairly large number of rebels, arrived in the Sublime Porte. Sultan Mustafa IV, having learned that Mustafa Bayraktar wanted to return the throne to Sultan Selim III, ordered the killing of Selim and the Shah-Zadeh's brother Mahmud. The Sultan was killed immediately, and Shah-Zade Mahmud, with the help of his slaves and servants, was freed. Mustafa Bayraktar, having removed Mustafa IV from the throne, declared Mahmud II sultan. The latter made him sadrasam - grand vizier.

Reign of Mahmud II

Not inferior to Selim in energy and in understanding the need for reforms, Mahmud was much tougher than Selim: angry, vindictive, he was more guided by personal passions, which were tempered by political foresight, than by a real desire for the good of the country. The ground for innovation was already somewhat prepared, the ability not to think about the means also favored Mahmud, and therefore his activities still left more traces than the activities of Selim. He appointed Bayraktar as his grand vizier, who ordered the beating of the participants in the conspiracy against Selim and other political opponents. The life of Mustafa himself was temporarily spared.

As the first reform, Bayraktar outlined the reorganization of the Janissary corps, but he had the imprudence to send part of his army to the theater of war; he only had 7,000 soldiers left. 6,000 Janissaries made a surprise attack on them and moved towards the palace in order to free Mustafa IV. Bayraktar, who locked himself in the palace with a small detachment, threw Mustafa’s corpse out to them, and then blew up part of the palace into the air and buried himself in the ruins. A few hours later, an army of three thousand, loyal to the government, led by Ramiz Pasha, arrived, defeated the Janissaries and destroyed a significant part of them.

Mahmud decided to postpone the reform until after the war with Russia, which ended in 1812. Peace of Bucharest. Congress of Vienna made some changes to the position of the Ottoman Empire, or, more correctly, defined it more precisely and established it in theory and on geographical maps something that has already happened in reality. Dalmatia and Illyria were assigned to Austria, Bessarabia to Russia; seven Ionian Islands received self-government under an English protectorate; English ships received the right of free passage through the Dardanelles.

Even in the territory remaining with the empire, the government did not feel confident. An uprising began in Serbia in 1817, ending only after Serbia was recognized by Peace of Adrianople 1829 as a separate vassal state, with its own prince at its head. In 1820 the uprising began Ali Pasha of Yaninsky. As a result of the treason of his own sons, he was defeated, captured and executed; but a significant part of his army formed cadres of Greek rebels. In 1821, an uprising that developed into war of independence, started in Greece. After the intervention of Russia, France and England and unfortunate for the Ottoman Empire Navarino (sea) battle(1827), in which the Turkish and Egyptian fleets were lost, the Ottomans lost Greece.

Military losses

Getting rid of the Janissaries and Dervishes (1826) did not save the Turks from defeat both in the war with the Serbs and in the war with the Greeks. These two wars, and in connection with them, were followed by the war with Russia (1828–29), which ended Treaty of Adrianople 1829 The Ottoman Empire lost Serbia, Moldavia, Wallachia, Greece, and the eastern coast of the Black Sea.

Following this, Muhammad Ali, Khedive of Egypt (1831-1833 and 1839), broke away from the Ottoman Empire. In the fight against the latter, the empire suffered blows that put its very existence at stake; but she was saved twice (1833 and 1839) by the unexpected intercession of Russia, caused by the fear of a European war, which would probably be caused by the collapse of the Ottoman state. However, this intercession also brought real benefits to Russia: around the world in Gunkyar Skelessi (1833), the Ottoman Empire granted Russian ships passage through the Dardanelles, closing it to England. At the same time, the French decided to take Algeria from the Ottomans (since 1830), which had previously, however, been only nominally dependent on the empire.

Civil reforms

Mahmud II begins modernization in 1839

The wars did not stop Mahmud's reform plans; private reforms in the army continued throughout his reign. He also cared about raising the level of education among the people; under him (1831) she began to reach French the first newspaper in the Ottoman Empire that had an official character (“Moniteur ottoman”). At the end of 1831, the first official newspaper in Turkish, Takvim-i Vekayi, began to be published.

Like Peter the Great, perhaps even consciously imitating him, Mahmud sought to introduce European morals among the people; he himself wore a European costume and encouraged his officials to do so, prohibited the wearing of a turban, organized festivities in Constantinople and other cities with fireworks, with European music and generally according to the European model. He did not live to see the most important reforms of the civil system conceived by him; they were already the work of his heir. But even the little he did went against the religious feelings of the Muslim population. He began to mint coins with his image, which is directly prohibited in the Koran (the news that previous sultans also removed portraits of themselves is subject to great doubt).

Throughout his reign, Muslim riots caused by religious feelings incessantly occurred in different parts of the state, especially in Constantinople; the government dealt with them extremely cruelly: sometimes 4,000 corpses were thrown into the Bosphorus in a few days. At the same time, Mahmud did not hesitate to execute even the ulemas and dervishes, who were generally his bitter enemies.

During the reign of Mahmud there were especially many fires in Constantinople, some of which occurred from arson; the people explained them as God's punishment for the sins of the Sultan.

Results of the board

The extermination of the Janissaries, which at first damaged the Ottoman Empire, depriving it of a bad, but still not useless army, after several years turned out to be extremely beneficial: the Ottoman army rose to the level of European armies, which was clearly proven in the Crimean campaign and even more so in the war of 1877-1878 and in the Greek war of 1897. Territorial reduction, especially the loss of Greece, also turned out to be more beneficial than harmful for the empire.

The Ottomans never allowed military service Christian; regions with a solid Christian population (Greece and Serbia), without increasing the Turkish army, at the same time required significant military garrisons from it, which could not be put into action in a moment of need. This applies especially to Greece, which, due to its extended maritime border, did not even represent strategic benefits for the Ottoman Empire, which was stronger on land than at sea. The loss of territories reduced the state revenues of the empire, but during the reign of Mahmud, trade between the Ottoman Empire and European states somewhat revived, and the country's productivity increased somewhat (bread, tobacco, grapes, rose oil, etc.).

Thus, despite all external defeats, despite even the terrible Battle of Nisib, in which Muhammad Ali destroyed a significant Ottoman army and was followed by the loss of an entire fleet, Mahmud left Abdülmecid a state strengthened rather than weakened. It was also strengthened by the fact that from now on the interest of the European powers was more closely connected with the preservation of the Ottoman state. The importance of the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles has increased enormously; The European powers felt that the capture of Constantinople by one of them would deal an irreparable blow to the others, and therefore they considered the preservation of the weak Ottoman Empire more profitable for themselves.

In general, the empire was still decaying, and Nicholas I rightly called it a sick person; but the death of the Ottoman state was delayed indefinitely. Starting from the Crimean War, the empire began to intensively make foreign loans, and this gained it the influential support of its numerous creditors, that is, mainly the financiers of England. On the other hand, internal reforms that could raise the state and save it from destruction became increasingly important in the 19th century. It's getting more and more difficult. Russia was afraid of these reforms, since they could strengthen the Ottoman Empire, and through its influence at the court of the Sultan tried to make them impossible; Thus, in 1876-1877, she destroyed Midhad Pasha, who was capable of carrying out serious reforms that were not inferior in importance to the reforms of Sultan Mahmud.

Reign of Abdul-Mecid (1839-1861)

Mahmud was succeeded by his 16-year-old son Abdul-Mejid, who was not distinguished by his energy and inflexibility, but was a much more cultured and gentle person in character.

Despite everything Mahmud did, the Battle of Nisib could have completely destroyed the Ottoman Empire if Russia, England, Austria and Prussia had not entered into an alliance to protect the integrity of the Porte (1840); They drew up a treaty, by virtue of which the Egyptian viceroy retained Egypt on a hereditary basis, but undertook to immediately cleanse Syria, and in case of refusal he had to lose all his possessions. This alliance caused indignation in France, which supported Muhammad Ali, and Thiers even made preparations for war; however, Louis-Philippe did not dare to take it. Despite the inequality of power, Muhammad Ali was ready to resist; but the English squadron bombarded Beirut, burned the Egyptian fleet and landed a corps of 9,000 people in Syria, which, with the help of the Maronites, inflicted several defeats on the Egyptians. Muhammad Ali conceded; The Ottoman Empire was saved, and Abdulmecid, supported by Khozrev Pasha, Reshid Pasha and other associates of his father, began reforms.

Gulhanei Hutt Sheriff

At the end of 1839, Abdul-Mecid published the famous Gulhane Hatti Sheriff (Gulhane - “home of roses”, the name of the square where the Hatti Sheriff was declared). This was a manifesto that defined the principles that the government intended to follow:

• providing all subjects with perfect security regarding their life, honor and property;
• the correct way to distribute and collect taxes;
• an equally correct way of recruiting soldiers.

It was considered necessary to change the distribution of taxes in the sense of their equalization and abandon the system of farming them out, determine the costs of land and naval forces; publicity was established legal proceedings. All these benefits applied to all subjects of the Sultan without distinction of religion. The Sultan himself took an oath of allegiance to the Hatti Sheriff. All that remained was to actually fulfill the promise.

Gumayun

After the Crimean War, the Sultan published a new Gatti Sherif Gumayun (1856), which confirmed and developed in more detail the principles of the first; especially insisted on the equality of all subjects, without distinction of religion or nationality. After this Gatti Sheriff, the old law on the death penalty for converting from Islam to another religion was abolished. However, most of these decisions remained only on paper.

The highest government was partly unable to cope with the willfulness of lower officials, and partly itself did not want to resort to some of the measures promised in the Gatti Sheriffs, such as, for example, the appointment of Christians to various positions. Once it made an attempt to recruit Christian soldiers, but this caused discontent among both Muslims and Christians, especially since the government did not dare to abandon religious principles when producing officers (1847); this measure was soon canceled. The massacres of Maronites in Syria (1845 and others) confirmed that religious tolerance was still alien to the Ottoman Empire.

During the reign of Abdul-Mejid, roads were improved, many bridges were built, several telegraph lines were installed, and postal services were organized along European lines.

The events of 1848 did not resonate at all in the Ottoman Empire; only Hungarian revolution prompted the Ottoman government to make an attempt to restore its dominance on the Danube, but the defeat of the Hungarians dispelled its hopes. When Kossuth and his comrades escaped on Turkish territory, Austria and Russia turned to Sultan Abdulmecid demanding their extradition. The Sultan replied that religion forbade him to violate the duty of hospitality.

Crimean War

1853 -1856 were the time of a new Eastern War, ending in 1856. Parisian peace. On Paris Congress a representative of the Ottoman Empire was admitted on the basis of equality, and thereby the empire was recognized as a member of the European concern. However, this recognition was more formal than actual. First of all, the Ottoman Empire, whose participation in the war was very large and which proved an increase in its combat capability compared with the first quarter of the 19th or the end of the 18th century, actually received very little from the war; the destruction of Russian fortresses on the northern coast of the Black Sea was of negligible significance for her, and Russia’s loss of the right to maintain a navy on the Black Sea could not last long and was canceled already in 1871. Further, consular jurisdiction was preserved and proved that Europe was still watching on the Ottoman Empire as a barbaric state. After the war, European powers began to establish their own postal institutions on the territory of the empire, independent of the Ottoman ones.

The war not only did not increase the power of the Ottoman Empire over the vassal states, but weakened it; the Danube principalities united in 1861 into one state, Romania, and in Serbia, the Turkish-friendly Obrenovichi were overthrown and replaced by those friendly to Russia Karageorgievici; Somewhat later, Europe forced the empire to remove its garrisons from Serbia (1867). During the Eastern Campaign, the Ottoman Empire made a loan in England of 7 million pounds sterling; in 1858,1860 and 1861 I had to make new loans. At the same time, the government issued a significant amount of paper money, the value of which quickly fell sharply. In connection with other events, this caused the trade crisis of 1861, which had a severe impact on the population.

Abdul Aziz (1861–76) and Murad V (1876)

Abdul Aziz was a hypocritical, voluptuous and bloodthirsty tyrant, more reminiscent of the sultans of the 17th and 18th centuries than of his brother; but he understood the impossibility under these conditions of stopping on the path of reform. In the Gatti Sherif published by him upon his accession to the throne, he solemnly promised to continue the policies of his predecessors. Indeed, he released political criminals imprisoned in the previous reign from prison and retained his brother's ministers. Moreover, he stated that he was abandoning the harem and would be content with one wife. The promises were not fulfilled: a few days later, as a result of palace intrigue, the Grand Vizier Mehmed Kibrısli Pasha was overthrown and replaced by Aali Pasha, who in turn was overthrown a few months later and then again took the same post in 1867.

In general, grand viziers and other officials were replaced with extreme speed due to the intrigues of the harem, which was very soon re-established. Some measures in the spirit of Tanzimat were nevertheless taken. The most important of them is the publication (which, however, does not exactly correspond to reality) of the Ottoman state budget (1864). During the ministry of Aali Pasha (1867-1871), one of the most intelligent and dexterous Ottoman diplomats of the 19th century, partial secularization of waqfs was carried out, and Europeans were granted the right to own real estate within the Ottoman Empire (1867), reorganized state council (1868), a new law on public education was issued, formally introduced metric system of weights and measures, which, however, did not take root in life (1869). The same ministry organized censorship (1867), the creation of which was caused by the quantitative growth of periodical and non-periodical press in Constantinople and other cities, in Ottoman and foreign languages.

Censorship under Aali Pasha was characterized by extreme pettiness and severity; she not only forbade writing about what seemed inconvenient to the Ottoman government, but directly ordered the printing of praises of the wisdom of the Sultan and the government; in general, she made the entire press more or less official. Its general character remained the same after Aali Pasha, and only under Midhad Pasha in 1876-1877 was it somewhat softer.

War in Montenegro

In 1862, Montenegro, seeking complete independence from the Ottoman Empire, supporting the rebels of Herzegovina and counting on Russian support, began a war with the empire. Russia did not support it, and since a significant preponderance of forces was on the side of the Ottomans, the latter fairly quickly won a decisive victory: Omer Pasha’s troops penetrated all the way to the capital, but did not take it, since the Montenegrins began to ask for peace, to which the Ottoman Empire agreed .

Revolt in Crete

In 1866, the Greek uprising began in Crete. This uprising aroused warm sympathy in Greece, which began hastily preparing for war. European powers came to the aid of the Ottoman Empire and resolutely forbade Greece to intercede on behalf of the Cretans. An army of forty thousand was sent to Crete. Despite the extraordinary courage of the Cretans, who waged a guerrilla war in the mountains of their island, they could not hold out for long, and after three years of struggle the uprising was pacified; the rebels were punished by executions and confiscation of property.

After the death of Aali Pasha, the great viziers began to change again with extreme speed. In addition to the harem intrigues, there was another reason for this: two parties fought at the Sultan’s court - English and Russian, acting on the instructions of the ambassadors of England and Russia. The Russian ambassador to Constantinople in 1864-1877 was Count Nikolay Ignatiev, who had undoubted relations with the dissatisfied in the empire, promising them Russian intercession. At the same time, he had great influence on the Sultan, convincing him of Russia’s friendship and promising him assistance in the change of order planned by the Sultan succession to the throne not to the eldest in the clan, as was the case before, but from father to son, since the Sultan really wanted to transfer the throne to his son Yusuf Izedin.

Coup d'etat

In 1875, an uprising broke out in Herzegovina, Bosnia and Bulgaria, dealing a decisive blow to Ottoman finances. It was announced that from now on the Ottoman Empire would pay only one half of interest in money for its foreign debts, and the other half in coupons payable no earlier than in 5 years. The need for more serious reforms was recognized by many senior officials of the empire, led by Midhad Pasha; however, under the capricious and despotic Abdul-Aziz, their implementation was completely impossible. In view of this, the Grand Vizier Mehmed Rushdi Pasha conspired with the ministers Midhad Pasha, Hussein Avni Pasha and others and Sheikh-ul-Islam to overthrow the Sultan. Sheikh-ul-Islam gave the following fatwa: “If the Commander of the Faithful proves his madness, if he does not have the political knowledge necessary to govern the state, if he makes personal expenses that the state cannot bear, if his stay on the throne threatens with disastrous consequences, then should he be deposed or not? The law says yes."

On the night of May 30, 1876, Hussein Avni Pasha, putting a revolver to the chest of Murad, the heir to the throne (son of Abdulmecid), forced him to accept the crown. At the same time, a detachment of infantry entered the palace of Abdul-Aziz, and it was announced to him that he had ceased to reign. Murad V ascended the throne. A few days later it was announced that Abdul-Aziz had cut his veins with scissors and died. Murad V, who was not quite normal before, under the influence of the murder of his uncle, the subsequent murder of several ministers in the house of Midhad Pasha by the Circassian Hassan Bey, who was avenging the Sultan, and other events, finally went crazy and became just as inconvenient for his progressive ministers. In August 1876, he was also deposed with the help of a fatwa from the mufti and his brother Abdul-Hamid was elevated to the throne.

Abdul Hamid II

Already at the end of the reign of Abdul Aziz, uprising in Herzegovina and Bosnia, caused by the extremely difficult situation of the population of these regions, partly obliged to serve corvee in the fields of large Muslim landowners, partly personally free, but completely powerless, oppressed by exorbitant taxes and at the same time constantly fueled in their hatred of the Turks by the close proximity of free Montenegrins.

In the spring of 1875, some communities turned to the Sultan with a request to reduce the tax on sheep and the tax paid by Christians in return for military service, and to organize a police force from Christians. They didn't even get an answer. Then their residents took up arms. The movement quickly spread throughout Herzegovina and spread to Bosnia; Niksic was besieged by rebels. Detachments of volunteers moved from Montenegro and Serbia to help the rebels. The movement aroused great interest abroad, especially in Russia and Austria; the latter turned to the Porte demanding religious equality, lower taxes, revision of real estate laws, etc. The Sultan immediately promised to fulfill all this (February 1876), but the rebels did not agree to lay down their weapons until the Ottoman troops were withdrawn from Herzegovina. The ferment spread to Bulgaria, where the Ottomans, in response, carried out a terrible massacre (see Bulgaria), which caused indignation throughout Europe (Gladstone's brochure about atrocities in Bulgaria), entire villages were massacred, including infants. The Bulgarian uprising was drowned in blood, but the Herzegovinian and Bosnian uprising continued in 1876 and finally caused the intervention of Serbia and Montenegro (1876-1877; see. Serbo-Montenegrin-Turkish War).

On May 6, 1876, in Thessaloniki, the French and German consuls were killed by a fanatical crowd, which included some officials. Of the participants or accomplices of the crime, Selim Bey, the chief of police in Thessaloniki, was sentenced to 15 years in the fortress, one colonel to 3 years; but these punishments, which were far from being carried out in full, satisfied no one, and the public opinion of Europe was strongly incited against the country where such crimes could be committed.

In December 1876, at the initiative of England, a conference of the great powers was convened in Constantinople to resolve the difficulties caused by the uprising, but it did not achieve its goal. The Grand Vizier at this time (from December 13, 1876) was Midhad Pasha, a liberal and Anglophile, the head of the Young Turk party. Considering it necessary to make the Ottoman Empire a European country and wanting to present it as such to the authorized representatives of the European powers, he drafted a constitution in a few days and forced Sultan Abdul Hamid to sign and publish it (December 23, 1876).

Ottoman Parliament, 1877

The constitution was drawn up on the model of European ones, especially the Belgian one. It guaranteed individual rights and established a parliamentary regime; Parliament was to consist of two chambers, from which the Chamber of Deputies was elected by a universal closed vote of all Ottoman subjects, without distinction of religion or nationality. The first elections were held during the administration of Midhad; its candidates were almost universally chosen. The opening of the first parliamentary session took place only on March 7, 1877, and even earlier, on March 5, Midhad was overthrown and arrested as a result of palace intrigues. Parliament was opened with a speech from the throne, but was dissolved a few days later. New elections were held, the new session turned out to be just as short, and then, without the formal repeal of the constitution, even without the formal dissolution of parliament, it no longer met.

Main article: Russian-Turkish War 1877-1878

In April 1877, the war with Russia began, in February 1878 it ended Peace of San Stefano, then (June 13 - July 13, 1878) by the amended Berlin Treaty. The Ottoman Empire lost all rights to Serbia and Romania; Bosnia and Herzegovina was given to Austria to restore order in it (de facto - for complete possession); Bulgaria formed a special vassal principality, Eastern Rumelia - an autonomous province, which soon (1885) united with Bulgaria. Serbia, Montenegro and Greece received territorial increments. In Asia, Russia received Kars, Ardagan, Batum. The Ottoman Empire had to pay Russia an indemnity of 800 million francs.

Riots in Crete and in areas inhabited by Armenians

Nevertheless, the internal conditions of life remained approximately the same, and this was reflected in the riots that constantly arose in one place or another in the Ottoman Empire. In 1889, an uprising began in Crete. The rebels demanded a reorganization of the police so that it would consist of more than just Muslims and would protect more than just Muslims, a new organization of courts, etc. The Sultan rejected these demands and decided to act with weapons. The uprising was suppressed.

In 1887 in Geneva, in 1890 in Tiflis, the political parties Hunchak and Dashnaktsutyun were organized by Armenians. In August 1894, unrest began in Sasun by the Dashnak organization and under the leadership of Ambartsum Boyadzhiyan, a member of this party. These events are explained by the powerless position of the Armenians, especially by the robberies of the Kurds, who made up part of the troops in Asia Minor. The Turks and Kurds responded with terrible massacres, reminiscent of the Bulgarian horrors, where rivers flowed with blood for months; entire villages were slaughtered [source not specified 1127 days] ; many Armenians were taken prisoner. All these facts were confirmed by European (mainly English) newspaper correspondence, which very often spoke from positions of Christian solidarity and caused an explosion of indignation in England. To the representation made on this matter by the British ambassador, Porta responded with a categorical denial of the validity of the “facts” and a statement that it was a matter of the usual pacification of a riot. However, the ambassadors of England, France and Russia in May 1895 presented the Sultan with demands for reforms in areas inhabited by Armenians, based on the resolutions Berlin Treaty; they demanded that the officials administering these lands be at least half Christian and that their appointment depend on a special commission in which Christians would also be represented; [ style!] The Porte replied that it saw no need for reforms for individual territories, but that it had in mind general reforms for the entire state.

On August 14, 1896, members of the Dashnaktsutyun party in Istanbul itself attacked the Ottoman Bank, killed the guards and entered into a shootout with the arriving army units. On the same day, as a result of negotiations between the Russian ambassador Maksimov and the Sultan, the Dashnaks left the city and headed to Marseille, on the yacht of the general director of the Ottoman Bank, Edgard Vincent. The European ambassadors made a presentation to the Sultan on this matter. This time the Sultan considered it necessary to respond with a promise of reform, which was not fulfilled; Only new administration of vilayets, sanjaks and nakhiyas was introduced (see. Government of the Ottoman Empire), which changed the essence of the matter very little.

In 1896, new unrest began in Crete and immediately took on a more dangerous character. The session of the National Assembly opened, but it did not enjoy the slightest authority among the population. Nobody counted on European help. The uprising flared up; Rebel detachments in Crete harassed the Turkish troops, repeatedly causing them heavy losses. The movement found a lively echo in Greece, from which in February 1897 a military detachment under the command of Colonel Vassos set off for the island of Crete. Then the European squadron, consisting of German, Italian, Russian and English warships, under the command of the Italian admiral Canevaro, assumed a threatening position. On February 21, 1897, she began to bombard the rebel military camp near the city of Kanei and forced them to disperse. A few days later, however, the rebels and the Greeks managed to take the city of Kadano and capture 3,000 Turks.

At the beginning of March, there was a riot in Crete by Turkish gendarmes, dissatisfied with not receiving their salaries for many months. This revolt could have been very useful for the rebels, but the European landing disarmed them. On March 25, the rebels attacked Canea, but came under fire from European ships and had to retreat with heavy losses. In early April 1897, Greece moved its troops into Ottoman territory, hoping to penetrate as far as Macedonia, where minor riots were occurring at the same time. Within one month, the Greeks were completely defeated, and Ottoman troops occupied all of Thessaly. The Greeks were forced to ask for peace, which was concluded in September 1897 under pressure from the powers. There were no territorial changes, other than a small strategic adjustment of the border between Greece and the Ottoman Empire in favor of the latter; but Greece had to pay a war indemnity of 4 million Turkish pounds.

In the fall of 1897, the uprising on the island of Crete also ceased, after the Sultan once again promised self-government to the island of Crete. Indeed, at the insistence of the powers, Prince George of Greece was appointed governor-general of the island, the island received self-government and retained only vassal relations with the Ottoman Empire. At the beginning of the 20th century. in Crete, a noticeable desire was revealed for the complete separation of the island from the empire and for annexation to Greece. At the same time (1901) fermentation continued in Macedonia. In the fall of 1901, Macedonian revolutionaries captured an American woman and demanded a ransom for her; this causes great inconvenience to the Ottoman government, which is powerless to protect the safety of foreigners on its territory. In the same year, the movement of the Young Turk party, which was once headed by Midhad Pasha, manifested itself with comparatively greater force; she began intensively publishing brochures and leaflets in the Ottoman language in Geneva and Paris for distribution in the Ottoman Empire; in Istanbul itself, many people belonging to the bureaucratic and officer class were arrested and sentenced to various punishments on charges of participating in Young Turk agitation. Even the Sultan's son-in-law, married to his daughter, went abroad with his two sons, openly joined the Young Turk party and did not want to return to his homeland, despite the Sultan's persistent invitation. In 1901, the Porte attempted to destroy European postal institutions, but this attempt was unsuccessful. In 1901, France demanded that the Ottoman Empire satisfy the claims of some of its capitalists and creditors; the latter refused, then the French fleet occupied Mytilene and the Ottomans hastened to satisfy all demands.

Departure of Mehmed VI, last Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, 1922

• In the 19th century, separatist sentiments intensified on the outskirts of the empire. The Ottoman Empire began to gradually lose its territories, succumbing to the technological superiority of the West.
• In 1908, the Young Turks overthrew Abdul Hamid II, after which the monarchy in the Ottoman Empire began to be decorative (see article Young Turk Revolution). The triumvirate of Enver, Talaat and Djemal was established (January 1913).
• In 1912, Italy captured Tripolitania and Cyrenaica (now Libya) from the empire.
• IN First Balkan War 1912-1913 the empire loses the vast majority of its European possessions: Albania, Macedonia, northern Greece. During 1913, she managed to recapture a small part of the lands from Bulgaria during Inter-Allied (Second Balkan) War.
• Weak, the Ottoman Empire tried to rely on help from Germany, but this only drew it into First World War which ended in defeat Quadruple Alliance.
• October 30, 1914 - The Ottoman Empire officially announced its entry into the First World War, the day before actually entering it by shelling the Black Sea ports of Russia.
• In 1915, the Genocide of Armenians, Assyrians, and Greeks.
• During 1917-1918, the Allies occupied the Middle Eastern possessions of the Ottoman Empire. After World War I, Syria and Lebanon came under the control of France, Palestine, Jordan and Iraq came under the control of Great Britain; in the west of the Arabian Peninsula with the support of the British ( Lawrence of Arabia) independent states were formed: Hejaz, Najd, Asir and Yemen. Subsequently, Hijaz and Asir became part of Saudi Arabia.
• On October 30, 1918 it was concluded Truce of Mudros followed by Treaty of Sèvres(August 10, 1920), which did not come into force because it was not ratified by all signatories (ratified only by Greece). According to this agreement, the Ottoman Empire was to be dismembered, and one of the largest cities in Asia Minor, Izmir (Smyrna), was promised to Greece. The Greek army took it on May 15, 1919, after which it began war of independence. Turkish military statesmen led by Pasha Mustafa Kemal refused to recognize the peace treaty and armed forces, who remained under their command, expelled the Greeks from the country. By September 18, 1922, Türkiye was liberated, which was recorded in Treaty of Lausanne 1923, which recognized the new borders of Turkey.
• On October 29, 1923, the Turkish Republic was proclaimed, and Mustafa Kemal, who later took the name Ataturk (father of the Turks), became its first president.
• March 3, 1924 - Grand National Assembly of Turkey The Caliphate was abolished.

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Portal "Ottoman Empire"

Formation of the Ottoman Empire(January 17, 1299 - May 29, 1453) - a period that began with the weakening of the Konya Sultanate at the very beginning of the 14th century and ended with the fall of Constantinople on May 29, 1453.

The rise of the Ottomans correlates with the fall of the Byzantine Empire, which produced a shift in power from an exclusive Christian European society to Islamic influence. The beginning of this period was characterized by the Byzantine–Ottoman wars, which lasted for a century and a half. During this period, the Ottoman Empire gained control of both Anatolia and the Balkans.

Immediately after the establishment of the Anatolian beyliks, some Turkic principalities allied with the Ottomans against the Byzantine Empire. This period also saw the Sultanate of Rum defeated by the Mongols in the 14th century and was accompanied by the Rise of the Ottoman Empire - a period called "Pax Ottomana", the economic and social stability achieved in the conquered areas of the Ottoman Empire by some historians.

Anatolia before the Ottomans

Over the next century, the Seljuks occupied the territories of their weaker neighbors, and in 1176, the Konya Sultan Kilij Arslan II utterly defeated the army of the Byzantine Emperor Manuel I Komnenos at the Battle of Myriokephalos, after which the Seljuks began to advance towards the coasts.

In the first half of the 13th century, the Mongols attacked the Seljuks from the east. After the Battle of Kosedag in 1243, the Konya Sultan became a vassal of the Mongol Khan, and subsequently of the Hulaguid Ilkhans of Iran. The sons of the last independent Sultan, Kay Khusrow II, began to dispute their inheritance with the support of various Turkic and Mongol factions, as a result of which Asia Minor turned into a conglomerate of rival beyliks. One of them was the Ottoman Beylik

Reign of Osman I

The very first information about the Ottomans dates back to the beginning of the 14th century. According to Byzantine sources, in 1301 the first military clash took place between the army of Byzantium and the army led by the leader Osman I.

After this victory, the Ottomans became impossible to ignore. The Byzantine Emperor Andronikos II Palaiologos, seeking to create a reliable alliance against the growing threat, offered one of the princesses of his house as a wife to the nominal overlord of Osman, the Ilkhanid Ghazan Khan, and then, after the death of Ghazan, to his brother. However, the expected help in men and weapons never came, and in 1303-1304 Andronicus hired Spanish crusading adventurers from the “Catalan Company” to protect his possessions from further advances by the Turks. Like most mercenary forces, the Catalans acted on their own, calling upon Turkic warriors (though not necessarily Ottomans) to join them on the European side of the Dardanelles. Only the alliance between Byzantium and the Serbian kingdom prevented the Turkic-Catalan offensive.

Osman I apparently died in 1323-1324, leaving his heirs a significant territory in northwestern Asia Minor.

Reign of Orhan I

In 1350, another Venetian-Genoese war began, the subject of which was control over profitable trade in the Black Sea. Orhan I took the side of Genoa, supplying food to both its fleet and the trading colony in Galata, and in 1352 he concluded a treaty with his allies. His troops also helped the Genoese when Galata was attacked by Venetian and Byzantine troops.

Reign of Bayezid I

Bayazid brutally took revenge for the murder of his father by exterminating most of the Serbian nobility located on the Kosovo field. With Stefan Vulkovic, the son and heir of the Serbian prince Lazar, who died in battle, the Sultan concluded an alliance by which Serbia became a vassal of the Ottoman Empire. Stephen, in exchange for maintaining his father's privileges, undertook to pay tribute from the silver mines and provide Serbian troops to the Ottomans at the first request of the Sultan. Stephen's sister and Lazarus' daughter, Olivera, was given in marriage to Bayezid.

While Ottoman troops were in Europe, the minor Anatolian beyliks attempted to regain control of the territories taken from them by the Ottomans. But in the winter of 1389-1390, Bayezid transferred troops to Anatolia and carried out a rapid campaign, conquering the western beyliks of Aydin, Sarukhan, Germiyan, Menteshe and Hamid. Thus, for the first time the Ottomans reached the shores of the Aegean and Mediterranean Seas, their state took the first steps towards the status of a maritime power. The nascent Ottoman fleet devastated the island of Chios, raided the coast of Attica, and attempted to organize a trade blockade of other islands in the Aegean Sea. However, as navigators, the Ottomans could not yet compare with the representatives of the Italian republics of Genoa and Venice.

The uprising of the Janissaries and the appearance of Georg Kastriot Skanderbeg in Albania forced Murad to return to the Turkish throne in 1446. Soon the Turks captured Morea and began an offensive in Albania. In October 1448, the Battle of Kosovo took place, pitting 50,000 Ottoman troops against the Crusaders under Hunyadi. The fierce three-day battle ended with the complete victory of Murad and decided the fate of the Balkan peoples - for several centuries they found themselves under the rule of the Turks. In 1449 and 1450, Murad made two campaigns against Albania, which did not bring significant success.

Reign of Mehmed II: Conquest of Constantinople

After the death of his father in 1451, Mehmed II killed his only surviving brother and began to strengthen the borders: he extended his father’s agreement with the Serbian despot George Branković, concluded a three-year agreement with Janos Hunyadi, confirmed the agreement with Venice of 1446, conducted a campaign against Karaman, not allowing the latter's emir to support contenders for power over the territories in Asia Minor, which had recently become part of the Ottoman state.

In 1451-1452, Mehmed II built the Bogaz-kesen fortress at the narrowest point of the Bosphorus on the European shore. As soon as the construction of the fortress was completed, the Sultan returned to Edirne to oversee the final preparations for the siege, and then marched on Constantinople with 160,000 troops. On April 5, the city was besieged, and on May 29, 1453 it fell. Constantinople became the new capital, marking this new stage in the history of the Ottoman Empire.

Sources

• Caroline Finkel, History of the Ottoman Empire. The Vision of Osman" - Moscow: AST Publishing House, 2010. ISBN 978-5-17-043651-4

View this template Coat of arms of the Ottoman Empire Education (1299–1402) European · with Russia · with Serbia · with Byzantium · Croatian-Ottoman Wars · with Austria · with Persia · with Greece (1821-1832 · · 1919-1922) · with Hungary · with Poland · with Venice · in the Middle East · First World War · War of Independence 1919–1922 ( chronology I asked Stella what his name was and how long ago she created it. - Oh, I haven’t even figured out what to call you yet! And he appeared right now! Do you really like him? – the girl chirped cheerfully, and I felt that she was pleased to see me again. - This is for you! – she suddenly said. - He will live with you. The little dragon funnyly stretched out its spiky muzzle, apparently deciding to see if I had anything interesting... And suddenly licked me right on the nose! Stella squealed with delight and was clearly very pleased with her creation. “Well, okay,” I agreed, “while I’m here, he can be with me.” “Aren’t you going to take him with you?” – Stella was surprised. And then I realized that she apparently doesn’t know at all that we are “different” and that we no longer live in the same world. Most likely, the grandmother, in order to feel sorry for her, did not tell the girl the whole truth, and she sincerely thought that this was exactly the same world in which she had lived before, with the only difference being that now she could still create her own world.. . I knew for sure that I didn’t want to be the one to tell this little trusting girl what her life was really like today. She was content and happy in this “her” fantastic reality, and I mentally swore to myself that I would never and never be the one who would destroy this fairy-tale world of hers. I just couldn’t understand how my grandmother explained the sudden disappearance of her entire family and, in general, everything in which she was now living?.. “You see,” I said with a slight hesitation, smiling, “where I live, dragons are not very popular... - So no one will see him! – the little girl chirped cheerfully. A weight had literally been lifted from my shoulders!.. I hated lying or getting out, and especially in front of such a pure little person as Stella was. It turned out that she understood everything perfectly and somehow managed to combine the joy of creation and the sadness of losing her family. – And I finally found a friend here! – the little girl declared victoriously. - Oh, well?.. Will you ever introduce me to him? – I was surprised. She nodded her fluffy red head amusingly and squinted slyly. - Do you want it right now? – I felt that she was literally “fidgeting” in place, unable to contain her impatience any longer. – Are you sure that he will want to come? – I was wary. Not because I was afraid or embarrassed of anyone, I just didn’t have the habit of bothering people without a particularly important reason, and I wasn’t sure that right now this reason was serious... But Stella was apparently into it I’m absolutely sure, because literally a split second later a man appeared next to us. It was a very sad knight... Yes, yes, exactly a knight!.. And I was very surprised that even in this “other” world, where he could “put on” any energy “clothes”, he still did not parted with his stern knightly guise, in which he still, apparently, remembered himself very well... And for some reason I thought that he must have had some very serious reasons for this, if even after so many years he I didn’t want to part with this look. Usually, when people die, for the first time after their death, their essences always look exactly as they looked at the moment of their death. physical death. Apparently, the enormous shock and wild fear of the unknown are great enough not to add any additional stress to this. When time passes (usually after a year), the essences of old and elderly people gradually begin to look young and become exactly the same as they were in the best years of their youth. Well, the untimely dead babies suddenly “grow up”, as if “catching up” with their unlived years, and become somewhat similar to their essences, as they were when they entered the bodies of these unfortunate people who died too early, or from some kind of disease untimely deceased children, with the only difference that some of them “add” a little in development, if during their short years lived in the physical body they were lucky enough... And much later, each essence changes, depending on how she continues to live in the “new” world. And high essences living on the mental level of the earth, unlike everyone else, are even able to create a “face” and “clothes” for themselves, at their own request, since, having lived for a very long time (the higher the development of the essence, the rarer it re-incarnates into a physical body) and having become sufficiently accustomed to that “other” world, initially unfamiliar to them, they themselves are able to create and create a lot. Why little Stella chose this particular adult and somehow deeply wounded man as her friend remains an unsolved mystery for me to this day. But since the little girl looked absolutely satisfied and happy with such an “acquisition,” I could only completely trust the unmistakable intuition of this little, crafty sorceress... As it turned out, his name was Harold. The last time he lived in his physical earthly body was more than a thousand years ago and apparently possessed a very high essence, but I felt in my heart that the memories of the period of his life in this, last, incarnation were something very painful for him, since it was from there Harold endured this deep and sorrowful sadness that had accompanied him for so many years... - Here! He is very nice and you will become friends with him too! – Stella said happily, not paying attention to the fact that her new friend is also here and can hear us perfectly. It probably didn’t seem to her that talking about him in his presence might not be very right... She was simply very happy that she finally had a friend, and with this happiness she openly and with me I shared with pleasure. She was generally an incredibly happy child! As we said - “happy by nature.” Neither before Stella, nor after her, I have never met anyone even a little like this “sunny”, sweet girl. It seemed that no trouble, no misfortune could knock her out of this extraordinary “happy rut” of hers... And not because she did not understand or did not feel human pain or misfortune - on the contrary, I was even sure that she felt it much more deeper than all the others. It’s just that she was, as it were, created from cells of joy and light, and protected by some strange, very “positive” protection, which did not allow either grief or sadness to penetrate into the depths of her small and very kind heart in order to destroy it so familiar to all of us an everyday avalanche of negative emotions and feelings wounded by pain.... Stella herself WAS HAPPINESS and generously, like the sun, gave it to everyone around. – I found him so sad!.. And now he’s much better, isn’t he, Harold? – Stella continued happily, addressing both of us at the same time. “I’m very pleased to meet you,” I said, still feeling a little awkward. – It must be very difficult to be between worlds for so long?.. “This is the same world as everyone else,” the knight calmly answered, shrugging his shoulders. - Only almost empty... - What - empty? – I was surprised. Stella immediately intervened... It was clear that she couldn’t wait to tell me “everything and everything” as soon as possible, and she was already simply jumping on the spot from the impatience that burned her. “He just couldn’t find his loved ones here, but I helped him!” – the little girl blurted out joyfully. Harold smiled affectionately at this marvelous little man, “sparkling” with happiness, and nodded his head, as if confirming her words: - This is true. I looked for them for ages, but it turned out that all I had to do was open the right “door.” So she helped me. I stared at Stella, waiting for an explanation. This girl, without realizing it, continued to surprise me more and more. “Well, yes,” Stella said a little embarrassed. “He told me his story, and I saw that they simply weren’t here. So I looked for them... Naturally, I didn’t really understand anything from this explanation, but I was embarrassed to ask again, and I decided to wait to see what she would say next. But, unfortunately or fortunately, it was not so easy to hide something from this smart little girl... Slyly looking at me with her huge eyes, she immediately suggested: - Do you want me to show you? I just nodded in the affirmative, afraid of frightening her off, since I again expected something else “stunningly incredible” from her... Her “colorful reality” once again disappeared somewhere, and an unusual landscape appeared... Apparently, it was some very hot, perhaps eastern, country, since everything around was literally blinding with a bright, white-orange light, which usually appeared only in very hot, dry air. The land, as far as the eye could see, was scorched and colorless, and, except for the distant mountains visible in the blue haze, nothing diversified this sparingly monotonous, flat and “naked” landscape... A little further away one could see a small, ancient white-stone city, which throughout the circle was surrounded by a dilapidated stone wall. Surely, no one attacked this city for a long time, and the local residents were not very worried about “renewing” the defense, or at least the “aging” surrounding city wall. Inside, narrow snake-like streets ran through the city, connecting into one wider one, with unusual small “castles” standing out on it, which were more like miniature white fortresses, surrounded by the same miniature gardens, each of which was bashfully hidden from prying eyes behind a high stone wall. There was practically no greenery in the city, which is why the sun-drenched white stones literally “melted” from the sizzling heat. The angry midday sun furiously brought down the full power of its scorching rays onto the unprotected, dusty streets, which, already out of breath, pitifully listened to the slightest breath of a fresh breeze that never appeared. The hot air “swayed” with hot waves, turning this unusual town into a real stuffy oven. It seemed like it was the hottest day of the hottest summer on earth..... This whole picture was very real, as real as my favorite fairy tales once were, into which, just like here, I “fell headlong”, not hearing or seeing anything around... Suddenly, a small but very “homely” fortress stood out from the “general picture”, which, if not for two funny square turrets, would have looked more like a large and quite cozy house. On the steps, under a large olive tree, a small blond boy of about four or five years old was playing. And behind him, under an old apple tree, a plump, pleasant woman, looking like a sweet, caring, good-natured nanny, was collecting fallen apples. A very beautiful, fair-haired young lady appeared in the yard and... my new acquaintance - knight Harold. The woman was dressed in an unusual, but apparently very expensive, long silk dress, the folds of which gently swayed, repeating every movement of her light, graceful body. A funny, beaded blue silk cap rested peacefully on the beautiful lady's blond hair, perfectly emphasizing the color of her large light blue eyes. Harold, despite such sizzling, hellish heat, almost suffocating, “honestly suffered” in his red-hot knightly armor, mentally cursing the crazy heat (and immediately asking forgiveness from the “merciful” Lord, to whom he has been so faithful and sincere for so many years served)... Hot sweat, greatly irritating, poured from him like a hail, and, covering his eyes, heartlessly spoiled the quickly fleeting minutes of their next “last” farewell... Apparently, the knight was going somewhere very far away, because his dear lady's face was very sad, despite the fact that she honestly tried her best to hide it... “This is the last time, my caress... I promise you, this is truly the last time,” the knight said with difficulty, affectionately touching her tender cheek. I heard the conversation mentally, but there was a strange feeling of someone else’s speech. I understood the words perfectly, and yet I knew that they spoke some other language. “I’ll never see you again...” the woman whispered through her tears. - Never again... For some reason, the boy did not react in any way to either his father’s imminent departure or his farewell to his mother. He calmly continued to play, not paying any attention to the adults, as if it had nothing to do with him. This surprised me a little, but I did not dare to ask anything, but simply watched what would happen next. - Won't you say goodbye to me? – turning to him, the knight asked. The boy, without raising his eyes, shook his head negatively. “Leave him, he’s just angry with you...” the woman asked sadly. “He also believed in you that you wouldn’t leave him alone again.” The knight nodded and, climbing onto his huge horse, galloped down the narrow street without looking back, very soon disappearing around the first bend. And the beautiful lady sadly looked after him, and her soul was ready to run... crawl... fly after him, no matter where, just to see him again, at least for a moment, at least for a short moment to hear!.. But she knew. that this would not happen, that she would remain where she stood, and that, by the capricious whim of fate, she would never see or hug her Harold again... Large, heavy tears rolled down her pale, instantly haggard cheeks and sparkling drops disappeared into the dusty ground... “God save him...” the woman whispered bitterly. - I will never see him... never again... help him, Lord... She stood motionless, like a mournful Madonna, not seeing or hearing anything around, and the blond baby huddled at her feet, now revealing all his sadness and looking with longing to where, instead of his beloved dad, only the empty dusty road gleamed lonely white.. ... “How could I not say goodbye to you, my caress?” suddenly a quiet, sad voice sounded nearby. Harold looked at his sweet and sad wife without stopping, and a mortal melancholy, which seemed impossible to wash away even with a waterfall of tears, splashed in his blue eyes... But he looked like a very strong and courageous man, who, most likely , it was not so easy to shed tears... - No need! Well, no need to be sad! – little Stella stroked his huge hand with her fragile fingers. - You see how much they loved you?.. Well, do you want us not to watch anymore? You've seen this many times already!.. The picture disappeared... I looked at Stella in surprise, but before I had time to say anything, I found myself in another “episode” of this alien life, which had touched my soul so deeply. An unusually bright, cheerful, pink dawn, strewn with diamond drops of dew, woke up. The sky flared up for a moment, painting the edges of curly, fair-haired clouds with a scarlet glow, and immediately it became very light - an early, unusually fresh morning had arrived. On the terrace of an already familiar house, in the cool shade of a large tree, three of us were sitting - the knight Harold, already familiar to us, and his friendly little family. The woman looked amazingly beautiful and completely happy, like the same morning dawn... Smiling tenderly, she said something to her husband, sometimes gently touching his hand. And he, completely relaxed, quietly rocked his sleepy, disheveled son on his lap, and, happily sipping a gently pink, “sweating” drink, from time to time lazily answered some questions, apparently already familiar to him, from his lovely wife. .. The air was “ringing” like the morning and surprisingly clean. The small, neat garden breathed freshness, moisture and the smell of lemons; His chest was bursting with the fullness of the intoxicatingly clean air flowing straight into his lungs. Harold wanted to mentally “fly up” from the quiet happiness that filled his tired, tormented soul!... He listened to the newly awakened birds singing in thin voices, saw the beautiful face of his smiling wife, and it seemed that nothing in the world could disturb or take away he has this wonderful moment of bright joy and peace of his little happy family... To my surprise, this idyllic picture was suddenly separated from Stella and me by a glowing blue “wall,” leaving Knight Harold alone with his happiness. And he, forgetting about everything in the world, with all his soul “absorbed” these wonderful and so dear moments to him, without even noticing that he was left alone... “Well, let him watch this,” Stella whispered quietly. – And I’ll show you what happened next... The wonderful vision of quiet family happiness disappeared... and in its place another one appeared, cruel and frightening, not promising anything good, much less a happy ending..... It was still the same white-stone city, and the same house, already familiar to us... Only this time everything around was blazing on fire... Fire was everywhere. A roaring, all-consuming flame burst out of broken windows and doors, and engulfed people rushing about in horror, turning them into screaming human torches, thereby creating a successful living target for the monsters pursuing them. Women screamed and grabbed their children, trying to hide with them in the basements, but they did not escape for long - after short time laughing monsters dragged them, half naked and desperately screaming, outside to rape them right on the street, next to the still warm corpses of their little children... Almost nothing was visible from the soot spreading everywhere... The air was “clogged” with the smell of blood and burning, it was impossible to breathe. Maddened by fear and heat, the old people hiding in the basements climbed out into the courtyard and immediately fell dead under the swords of the terribly whooping, beast-like wild people rushing around the city on horses. All around you could hear the rumble of hooves, the ringing of iron, and wild screams that made your blood run cold... Horrible, heart-chilling images of violence and brutal murders flashed before my eyes, like in a movie... I couldn’t look at all this calmly, my heart literally “jumped out” of my chest, my forehead (as if I were in a physical body!. .) was covered in cold sweat, and I wanted to run wherever my eyes were looking from this terrifying, monstrously merciless world... But, looking at Stella’s seriously focused face, I felt ashamed of my weakness, and I forced myself to look further.